READING AS AN AIM AND A MEANS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Reading is one of the main skills that a pupil must acquire in the process of mastering a foreign language in school. The syllabus for foreign languages lists reading as one of the leading language activities to be developed. It runs: "To read, without a dictionary, texts containing familiar grammar material and no more than 4—6 unfamiliar words per 100 words of the text the meaning of which, as a rule, should be clear from the context or familiar word-building elements (in the eight-year school). Pupils are to read, with the help of a dictionary, easy texts containing familiar grammar material and 6—8 unfamiliar words per 100 words of the text (in the ten-year school)." Therefore reading is one of the practical aims of teaching a foreign language in schools.
Reading is of great educational importance, as reading is a means of communication, people get information they need from books, journals, magazines, newspapers, etc. Through reading in a foreign language the pupil enriches his knowledge of the world around him. He gets acquainted with the countries where the target language is spoken.
Reading develops pupils' intelligence. It helps to develop their memory, will, imagination. Pupils become accustomed to working with books, which, in its turn facilitates unaided practice in further reading. The content of texts, their ideological and political spirit influence pupils. We must develop in Soviet pupils such qualities as honesty, devotion to and love for our people and the working people of other countries, the texts our pupils are lo read must meet these requirements. Reading ability is, therefore, not only of great practical, but educational, and social importance, too.
Reading is not only an aim in itself, it is also a means of learning a foreign language. When reading a text the pupil reviews sounds and letters, vocabulary and grammar, memorizes the spelling of words, the meaning of words and word combinations, he also reviews grammar and, in this way, he perfects his command of the target language. The more the pupil reads, the better his retention of the linguistic material is. If the teacher instructs his pupils in good reading and they can read with sufficient fluency and complete comprehension he helps them to acquire speaking and writing skills as well. Reading is, therefore, both an end to be attained and a means to achieve that end.
THE CONTENT OF TEACHING READING
Reading is a complex process of language activity. As it is closely connected with the comprehension of what is read, reading is a complicated intellectual work. It requires the ability on the part of the reader to carry out a number of mental operations: analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, comparison.
Reading as a process is connected with the work of visual, kinesthetic, aural analyzers, and thinking. The visual analyzer is at work when the reader sees a text. While seeing the text he "sounds" it silently, therefore the kinesthetic analyzer is involved. When lie sounds the text he hears what he pronounces in his inner speech so it shows that the aural analyzer is not passive, it also works and, finally. due to the work of all the analyzers the reader can understand thoughts. In learning to read one of the aims is to minimize the activities of kinesthetic and aural analyzers so that the reader can associate what he sees with the thought expressed in reading material, since inner speech hinders the process of reading making it very slow. Thus the speed of reading depends on the reader's ability to establish a direct connection between what he sees and what it means. To make this easier to understand it may be represented as follows: visual --- thoughts analyzer, kinesthetic --- aural analyzer.
There are two ways of reading: aloud or orally, and silently. People usually start learning to read orally. In teaching a foreign language in school both ways should be developed. Pupils assimilate the graphic system of the target language as a means which is used for conveying information in print. They develop this skill through oral reading and silent reading.
When one says that one can read, it means that one can focus one's attention on the meaning and not on the form: the pupil treats the text as a familiar form of discourse and not as a task of deciphering. "The aim of the teacher is to get his pupils as quickly as possible over the period in which each printed symbol is looked at for its shape, and to arrive at the stage when the pupil looks at words and phrases, for their meaning, almost without noticing the shapes of the separate letters."' A good reader does not look at letters, nor even at words, one by one, however quickly; he takes in the meaning of two, three, or four words at a time, in a single moment. The eyes of a very good reader move quickly, taking long "jumps" and making very short "halts". We can call this ideal reading "reading per se". Reading per se is the end to be attained. It is possible provided:
(1)the reader can associate the graphic system of the language with the phonic system of that language;
(2)the reader can find the logical subject and the logical predicate of the sentences:
The man there is my neighbour. There were many people in the hall. It was difficult for me to come in time.
(3) the reader can get information from the text (as a whole).
These are the three constituent parts of reading as a process.
1.As a means of teaching reading a system of exercises is widely used in school, which includes: graphemic-phonemic exercises which help pupils to assimilate graphemic-phonemic correspondence in the English language;
2. structural-information exercises which help pupils to carry out lexical and grammar analysis to find the logical subject and predicate in the sentences following the structural signals;
3. semantic-communicative exercises which help pupils to get information from the text. The actions which pupils perform while doing these exercises constitute the content of teaching and learning reading in a foreign language
The logical subject — логический субъект, то. о чем идет речь, о чем говорится в высказывании; the logical predicate — логический предикат, или смысловое сказуемое, то новое, о чем говорится в высказывании, что передает смысловую информацию.
SOME DIFFICULTIES PUPILS HAVE IN LEARNING TO READ IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Reading in the English language is one of the most difficult things because there are 26 letters and 146 graphemes which represent 46 phonemes. Indeed the English alphabet presents many difficulties to Russian-speaking pupils because the Russian alphabet differs greatly from that of the English language. A comparison of the two languages shows that of the 26 pairs of printed letters (52 — it we consider capital and small letters as different symbols) only 4 are more or less similar to those of the Russian alphabet, both in print and in meaning. These are К, к, М, T. 31 letters are completely new to pupils. These are b, D, d. F, f, G, g, h, L, 1, I, i, J, j, N, n, Q, q, R, r, S, s, t, U, u, V. v, W, w, Z, z. The letters А, а, В, С, е, Е, е, Н, О, о, P, p, Y, y, X, x occur in both languages, but they are read differently. They are, therefore, the most difficult letters for the pupil to retain. Obviously in teaching a pupil to read English Words, much more attention should be given to those letters which occur in both languages but symbolize entirely different sounds. For example, H, p... (Pupils often read How as [nau]. Therefore, in presenting a new letter to pupils the teacher should stress its peculiarity not only from the standpoint of the English language (what sound or sounds it symbolizes) but from the point of view of the Russian language as well,
It is not sufficient to know English letters. It is necessary that pupils should know graphemes, how this or that vowel, vowel combination, consonant, or consonant combination is read in different positions in the words {window, down).
The teacher cannot teach pupils all the existing rules and exceptions for reading English words. Nor is it necessary to do so. When learning English pupils are expected to assimilate the following rules of reading: how to read stressed vowels in open and closed syllables and before r, how to read ay, oo, ou, ow, the consonants c, s, k, g; ch, sh, th, ng, ck and tion, ssion, ous. The rules are not numerous, but they are important to the development of reading.
Pupils should learn the reading of some monosyllabic words which are homophones. For example: son — sun; tail —tale; loo —two; write - right; eye—I, etc.
At the very beginning, the pupil is compelled to look at each printed letter separately in order to be sure of its shape. He often sees words and not sense units. For instance, he reads: The book is on the desk and not (The book is) {on the desk).
The most difficult thing in learning to read is to get information from a sentence or a paragraph on the basis of the knowledge of structural signals and not only the meaning of words. Pupils often ignore grammar and try to understand what they read relying on their knowledge of autonomous words. And, of course, they often fail, e. g., the sentence He was asked to help the old woman is understood as Он попросил помочь старушке, in which the word he becomes the subject and is not the object of the action. Pupils sometimes find it difficult to pick out topical sentences in the text which express the main ideas.
To make the process of reading easier new words, phrases and sentence patterns should be learnt orally before pupils are asked to read them. So when pupils start reading they know how to pronounce the words, the phrases, and the sentences, and are familiar with their meaning.
Consequently, in order to find the most effective ways of teaching the teacher should know the difficulties pupils may have.
HOW TO TEACH READING
The teacher can use the whole system of exercises for developing pupils' ability to read which may be done in two forms — loud and silent.
Reading aloud. In teaching reading aloud the following methods are observed: the phonic, the word, and the sentence methods. When the phonic method is used, the child learns the sounds and associates them with graphic symbols —letters. In the w о г d m e t h о d a complete word is first presented to the child. When several words have been learnt they are used in simple sentences. (This method is used in the Fifth Form English by Л. P. Starkov, R. R. Dixon and in teaching English as a mother tongue in England.) The sentence method deals with the sentences as units of approach in teaching reading. The teacher can develop pupils' ability to read sentences with correct intonation. Later the sentence is split up into words. (This method is utilized in the Fifth Form Englislh by S. K. Folomkina, E. I. Kaar.) The combination of the three methods can ensure good reading.
Pupils are taught to associate the graphic symbols of words with their meaning already learned orally. All the analyzers are at work: visual, auditory, kinesthetic. The leading role belongs to the visual analyzer. It is necessary that the graphic symbols (images) of words should be fixed in the pupils' memory. In teaching English in schools, however, little attention is given to this. Pupils are taught how "to sound" words rather than how "to read" them. They often repeat words, combination of words without looking at what they read. They look at the teacher. The teacher does not realize how much he hinders the formation of graphic images (symbols) in the pupils' memory by teaching to read in this way.
Reading in chorus, reading in groups in imitation of the teacher which is practised in schools forms rather kinesthetic images than graphic ones. The result is that pupils can sound the text but they cannot read. The teacher should observe the rule "Never read words, phrases, sentences by yourself. Give your pupils a chance to read them." For instance, in presenting the words and among them those which are read according to the rule the teacher should make his pupils read these words first. This rule is often violated in school. It is the teacher who first reads a word, a column of words, a sentence, a text and pupils just repeat after the teacher.
Teaching begins with presenting a letter to pupils, or a combination of letters, a word as a grapheme. The use of flash cards and the blackboard is indispensable.
Flash cards when the teacher uses them allow him:
(a)to present a new letter (letters);
to make pupils compose a word (several flash cards are distributed among the pupils, for example, p, я, e; they compose pen):
(c)to check pupils' knowledge of letters or graphemes;
(d)to make pupils recollect the words beginning with the letter shown (p — pen, pencil, pupil, etc.);
(e)to make pupils show the letter (letters) which stand for the sound [oul, la:, lei], etc.
When teaching reading the teacher needs a set of flash cards at hand. If the teacher uses the blackboard instead he can write printed letters on it and pupils can recollect
the words they have learnt orally which have this or that letter, compose a word
The same devices are applied for teaching pupils to read words, the task being different, however:
(a)pupils choose words which are not read according to the rule, for example: lake, plane, have, Mike, give, nine;
(b)pupils are invited to read the words which they usually misread:
yet _ let cold — could
form — from called — cold
come — some wood — would
does — goes walк — work
(c) pupils are invited to look at the words and name the
letter (letters) which makes the words different:
though — thought since — science
through — though with — which
hear — near content — context
hear — hare country — county
(d)pupils in turn read a column of words following the key word (see: A. P. Starkov, R. R. Dixon, Fifth Form English, Pupil's Book);
(e)pupils are invited to pick out the words with the graphemes oo, ow, ea, th,...
In teaching to read transcription is also utilized. It helps the reader to read a word in the cases where the same grapheme stands for different sounds: build, suit, or words which are not read according to the rule: aunt, colonel.
In modern textbooks for the 5th form transcription is not used. It is given in the textbooks for the 6th and the 7th forms. Beginning with the 6th and the 7th forms pupils learn the phonic symbols so that they are able to read The teacher determines what texts (or paragraphs) and exercises pupils are to read aloud. unfamiliar words which they look up in the word-list or a dictionary.
All the exercises mentioned above are designed lo develop pupils' ability to associate the graphic symbols with the phonic ones.
The structural-information exercises are done both in reading aloud and in silent reading. Pupils are taught how to read sentences, paragraphs, texts correctly. Special attention is given to intonation since it is of great importance to the actual division of sentences, to stressing the logical predicate in them. (Marking the text occasionally may be helpful.
At an early stage of teaching reading the teacher should read a sentence or a passage to the class himself. When he is sure the pupils understand the passage, he can set individuals and the class to repeat the sentences after him, reading again himself if the pupils' reading is poor. The pupils look into the textbook. In symbols it can be expressed like this: T — Class — T — P, — T — P. — T — P„ — T — Сlass (T — teacher; Сlass -— class; P — pupil).
This kind of elementary reading practice should be carried on for a limited number of lessons only. When a class has advanced far enough to be ready for more independent reading, reading in chorus might be decreased, but not eliminated: T —Class —P, P; P„.
When the pupils have learned to associate written symbols with the sounds they stand for they should read a sentence or a passage by themselves. In this way they get a chance to make use of their knowledge of the rules of reading. It gives the teacher an opportunity to see whether each of his pupils can read. Symbolically it looks like this: P1P3P,, T (S) С (S — speaker, if a tape recorder is used).
Reading aloud as a method of teaching and learning the language should take place in all the forms. This is done with the aim of improving pupils' reading skills.
In reading aloud, therefore, the teacher uses:
(a)diagnostic reading (pupils read and he can see their weak points in reading);
(b)instructive reading (pupils follow the pattern read by the teacher or the speaker);
(c)control reading or test reading (pupils read the text trying to keep as close to the pattern as possible).
MISTAKES AND HOW TO CORRECT THEM
In teaching pupils to read the teacher must do his best to prevent mistakes. We may, however, be certain that in spite of much work done by the teacher, pupils will make mistakes in reading. The question is who corrects their mistakes, how they should be corrected, when they must be corrected.
Our opinion is that the pupil who has made a mistake must try to correct it himself. If he cannot do it, his classmates correct his mistake. If they cannot do so the teacher corrects the mistake. The following techniques may be suggested:
1.The teacher writes a word (e. g., black) on the blackboard. He underlines ck in it and asks the pupil to say what sound these two letters convey. If the pupil cannot answer the question, the teacher asks some of his classmates. They help the pupil to correct his mistake and he reads the word.
2.One of the pupils asks: What is the English for „черный". If the pupil repeats the mistake, the "corrector" pronounces the word properly and explains the rule the pupil has forgotten. The pupil now reads the word correctly.
3.The teacher or one of the pupils says: Find the word „черный" and read it. The pupil finds the word and reads it either without any mistake if his first mistake was due to his carelessness, or he repeats the mistake. The teacher then tells him to recollect the rule and read the word correctly.
4.The teacher corrects the mistake himself. The pupil reads the word correctly. The teacher asks the pupil to explain to the class how to read ck.
5.The teacher tells the pupil to write the word black and underline ck. Then he says how the word is read.
There are some other ways of correcting pupils' mistakes. The teacher should use them reasonably and choose the one most suitable for the case.
Another question arises: whether we should correct a mistake in the process of reading a passage or after finishing it. Both ways are possible. The mistake should be corrected at once while the pupil reads the text if he has made it in a word which will occur two or more times in the text. If the word does not appear again, it is better to let the pupil read the paragraph to the end. Then the mistake is corrected.
A teacher should always be on the alert for the pupils' mistakes, follow their reading and mark their mistakes in pencil.
Silent reading. In learning to read pupils widen their eyespan. They can see more than a word, a phrase, a sentence. The eye can move faster than the reader is able to pronounce what he sees. Thus reading aloud becomes an obstacle for perception. It hinders the pupil's comprehension of the text. It is necessary that the pupil should read silently. Special exercises may be suggested to develop pupils' skills in silent reading. For instance, "Look and say, read and look up." (M. West) To perform this type of exercises pupils should read a sentence silently, grasp it, and reproduce it without looking into the text. At first they perform such exercises slowly. Gradually the teacher limits the time for the pupils' doing the exercises. It makes them read (aster and faster. All this lead to widening their eyespan.
Teaching silent reading is closely connected with two problems:
(1)instructing pupils in finding in sentences what is new in the information following some structural signals, the latter is possible provided pupils have a certain knowledge of grammar and vocabulary and they can perform lexical and grammar analysis;
(2)developing pupils' ability in guessing.
Pupils should be taught how to find the logical predicate in a sentence. The teacher may ask his pupils to read a text silently and find the words conveying the new information in the text according to their position. There are some signals which may be helpful in this respect. These are — the Passive Voice (The doctor was sent for); the indefinite article (A man came up to me); the construction "It is /was /was not difficult for him to finish his work in time), etc. Grammar and lexical analyses help pupils to assimilate structural words, to determine the meaning of a word proceeding from its position in the sentence, to find the meanings of unfamiliar words, and those which seem to be familiar but do not correspond to the structure of the sentence (e. g., / saw him book a ticket). Pupils' poor comprehension often results from their poor knowledge of grammar (syntax in particular). The teacher should instruct pupils how to work with a dictionary and a reference book so that they can overcome some difficulties independently. Although in school the teacher often applies grammar and lexical analyses, however, he often does it not with the aim of the "actual division" or.parsing of the sentence and belter comprehension of the sentence or of the text, but with the aim of checking or revision of his pupils' knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. This does not mean that the teacher should avoid grammar and vocabulary analyses for revision. However, much more attention should be given to leaching pupils how to carry out the actual division of sentences to get information from the text. Here are a few examples of structural-information exercises:
— Read the following sentences and guess the meaning of the words you don't know.
— Read the sentence An idea struck me and explain the use of the indefinite article.
—Find the logical predicates in the sentences with the words alone, even, so.
—Read the text. Stress the words conveying new information in each sentence.
E. g., I have a bag. The bag is black. It is a new bag. I like my new bag.
—These sentences are too complicated. Break them into shorter sentences.
—Find the sentence which summarizes the paragraph.
—By what words is the reader carried from sentence to sentence in this paragraph?
—What is the significance of the tense difference?
—What is the effect of the series of repetitions in the paragraph?
To read a text the pupil must possess the ability to grasp the contents of the text. The pupil is to be taught to compare, to contrast, to guess, and to foresee events.
One of the most frequently used methods by which children attack new words is through the use of picture clues.
The use of context clues is another word-getting technique. The pupil discovers what a new word is when that particular word is needed to complete the meaning of the sentence.
In teaching pupils to read much attention should be given to the development of their ability to guess. One of the best ways to develop this skill is to give the pupil the text for acquaintance either during the lesson or as his homework. He can read it again and again. "Before questions" may be helpful. They direct the pupil's thought when he reads the text. If the work is done during the lesson, the teacher can direct his pupils in guessing new words.
The teacher instructs pupils how to get information from the text. Semantic-communicative exercises are recommended. They are all connected with silent reading. These may be:
—Read and say why Jack does not take the apple (5th form textbook).
—Read. Find answers to the following questions (6th form textbook).
—Read the text. Find the words which describe the room.
—Read the text. Say what made the Prime Minister leave the country (Newspaper).
—There are two causes of the strike. Find them in the text (Newspaper).
—There are three main features of the substance mentioned in the text below. Find them (Popular Science).
—The author describes his hero with great sympathy. Find in what words he expresses his attitude (Fiction).
—Read the text and prove that... is a kind woman.
—Read the text and find arguments to prove that...
The three types of exercises are distributed differently depending on the stage of teaching. In the 5—6th forms graphemic-phonemic and structural-information exercises should prevail. In the 7—10th forms structural-information and semantic-communicative must be mostly used; the latter should prevail.
Pupils perform graphemic-phonemic exercises reading them aloud. The teacher uses individual, group, and full class reading. He checks the pupil's reading by making him read aloud.
Pupils perform structural-information exercises by reading them aloud and silently. The teacher uses individual, group, and full class reading when pupils read sentences, paragraphs of the text aloud, and when the aim is to teach pupils correct intonation in connection with the actual division of sentences. He checks the pupil's reading asking him to read aloud.
The teacher uses mass reading when pupils read sentences, paragraphs of the test silently, the objective may be different: either to widen their eyespan or to find new information. The teacher checks the pupil's silent reading by asking him to reproduce a sentence or a paragraph; through partial reading of a sentence or a clause: through the pupil's interpreting the text; by utilizing true-and-false statements, questions and answers, and, finally, translation.
Pupils perform semantic-communicative exercises reading the text silently. If the work is done during the lesson the teacher uses mass reading. He checks his pupils' comprehension by asking the pupils individually. The techniques the teacher uses to check pupils' ability to get information from the text may be different. The choice depends on the stage of teaching; on the material used; on pupils' progress.
In the junior stage the following techniques may be suggested:
—Read and draw.
—Here are the questions. Find the answers in the text. (Before-questions are given.)
—Find the following sentences in the text. (The teacher gives Russian equivalents.)
—Correct the following statements which are not true to fact.
—Translate the sentences (the paragraph) beginning with the words (The teacher reads the words.)
—Recite the text.
—Read the sentences you find most important in the text.
Some of the assignments may be done in writing. In the intermediate and senior stages the following techniques may be recommended.
—Answer the questions. (All types of questions may be used. However, why-questions are desirable.)
—Tell your classmates what (who, when, where, why)...
—Read the words (the sentence or the paragraph) to prove or to illustrate what you say.
—Find the words (sentences) from which you have got some new information for yourself.
—Read the paragraph (paragraphs) you like best, and say why you like it.
—Translate the paragraph when (where, why, etc.)...
—Translate the text. (This may be done both orally and in written form.)
—Write a short annotation of the text. (This may be done either in English or in Russian.)
The choice depends on the material used. If the text is easy, i. е., if it does not contain unfamiliar words and grammar ileitis (as is the case in the junior form) the teacher uses those techniques which are connected with speaking, with the active use of vocabulary and sentence patterns. Similar techniques may be used in intermediate and senior stages if the text is not difficult for the class. The teacher asks his pupils a few questions to test their understanding. The interrogation should be carried out briskly. The teacher passes from pupil to pupil without wailing if a particular pupil has not got his answer ready. For the most profitable results of this work speed is essential. It ensures that all get a chance to answer. With books open one of the pupils asks a question or a number of questions and another answers. The teacher asks the pupils to retell the text. One pupil begins retelling the text, another continues. Each pupil says a few sentences. The teacher asks the first group of pupils to be ready to say everything they know-about X, the second group — everything they know about J, the third group — about Y, and so on. The teacher arranges a discussion on the text read by pupils in class or at home.
The work must be carried out in a way which will be of interest to pupils and develop not only their reading ability but their aural comprehension and speaking abilities as well.
If the text is difficult, i. е., if it contains unfamiliar words and grammar items, and pupils must consult a dictionary or a reference book to understand it the techniques the teacher uses should be different, as the pupils read Hip text not only to get information but to improve their knowledge of the language and intensive work is needed on their part. The intensive work may be connected with:
(a)lexical work which help's pupils to deepen and enrich their vocabulary knowledge;
(b)grammar work which helps pupils to review and systematize their grammar knowledge and enrich it through grammar analysis;
(e) stylistic work which helps pupils to become acquainted with stylistic use of words and grammar forms (inversion, tense-usage, etc.);
(d) content analysis which helps pupils to learn new concepts quite strange to Russian-speaking pupils. For instance, the Houses of Parliament, public schools, etc.
The exercises are mostly connected with recognition on the part of the learners, namely, find... and read; find... and analyse...; find... and translate: read those sentences which you think contain the main information; answer the questions, etc. The choice also depends on pupils' progress. If pupils are orally skilful, the techniques the teacher uses are to be those connected with conversation. If pupils are poor in speaking the techniques the teacher uses should be those of recognition, translation, retelling in the mother - tongue, etc.
Unfortunately, some teachers have a tendency to test instead of teach during classroom work and they often con-tine themselves to reading and translating the text. This is a bad practice. Pupils are tested and not taught. Moreover, the procedure becomes monotonous, and the work is ineffective. A pupil who has been called on to read and received a mark will not usually listen to his classmates.
The methods and techniques suggested above will help the teacher to teach pupils reading as the syllabus requires.
Recommended Literature:
Программы начальной и средней школы. Иностранные языки (Чтение).
Хэгболдг П. Изучение иностранных языков. М., 1963. с. 92—109.
Уэст М. Обучение английскому языку в трудных условиях. М., 1966. с. 30-40.
Кузьченко О. Д., Ротова Г. В. Учебное чтение, его содержание и формы. — „Иностранные языки в школе", 1970, № 5.
Общая методика обучения иностранным языкам в средней школе. Под ред. А. А. Миролюбива. И. В. Рахманова. М., 1967, гл. IV.
Вайсбурд М. Л. Синтетическое чтение на английском языке в V— VIII классах средней школы. М., 1969.
Questions for Discussion:
2.1. Compare different standpoints on various approaches to reading. Which approach do you find justifiable"' Give several arguments to confirm your statement The only way to teach reading is by making the pupil himself read and not by his listening to and repeating someone else's reading. Discuss the problem in order to define the sequence in which reading should be taught.
3.Why must the text be considered a whole unit and should no; be taken in pieces when silent reading is being taught?
4.The ratio between silent reading and reading aloud should vary in favour of silent reading from form to form. How should this be reflected on working with the text in class? Confirm your statement will: some examples.
5.Reading as a form of language activity should teach the pupil to overcome difficulties by applying to the dictionary, handbook, grammar book, etc., during solitary work. Why is it so important, beginning at the intermediate stage, to teach pupils to use the dictionary and other reference books?
6.The texts pupils read are different by nature. How does this influence the techniques used while working at a text?
Activities:
1.Prepare a set of flash cards for teaching oral reading of the words you choose. Use a standard textbook.
2.Analyse one of the lessons in Pupil's Book and Teacher's Book and show how reading is taught.
3.Choose a text from a standard textbook and prepare some assignments developing silent reading.
4.Name a text for intensive work which will require the use of the dictionary and describe the procedure of working with the text.
Chapter X Translation
Before considering the role and the place of translation in foreign language teaching it is necessary to state what is meant by "translation". By translation we mean the transmission of a thought expressed in one language by means of another language. In this way translation ensures comprehension between peoples speaking different languages. In order to transmit a thought from one language into another, one must understand this thought in the language from which one is to translate it and find equivalents to express it in the other language. Therefore translation is a complicated process; it requires the ability to think in both languages.