2) The question of whether alien planets have intelligent beings on them is astill more tangled one. It is so means certain, that intelligence of human quality is the normal culmination of evolution. Some conditions may be favorable to life but not to high intelligence. The earth’s oceans, for instance, have no appreciably intelligent creatures, except for mammals such as dolphins and seals. To judge by this analogy, which is risky, an alien planet that is completely covered by water will probably have no animals more intelligent than the earth’s fish. The human combination of a large brain and a tool-holding hand is even more fortuitous. It would be expected that a long series of special circumstances was necessary to develop it. If any of them had been lacking, the earth would have continued for billions of years more, perhaps for the life of the solar system, without achieving really high intelligence.
3) On the other hand, intelligence undoubtedly has important survival value. Evolution on the earth has generally moved in the direction of more highly developed brains. Fish have better brains than the marine worms from which they evolved, and amphibians, reptiles and mammals have successively better ones. If man had not developed his large brain, some other mammal, perhaps, the racoon, might have done so in a few tens of millions of years. Evolutionists suggest that intelligence should be in the cards for any planet where conditions are reasonably favourable for it.
4) But does intelligence imply that civilization exists? Here is another question hedged with unknowns. In the case of the earth, more than 200,000 years must have passed between the appearance of the first men with really large brains and the first human society that could be called civilized. But with only one example to judge by, this incubation period cannot be called standard for all inhabited planets. It may be unusually short or long. In any case, there should be plenty of time. The earth produced creatures capable of technical civilization in about five billion years, less than half of the 13 billion years that the sun would be expected to shine steadily. Since smaller stars of the sun’s type are extremely numerous and shine even longer, their planetary systems might have an even better chance – so far as time is concerned – to develop civilization.
5) Even when civilization has begun, a high technical civilization is by no means certain. The first civilized human communities were agricultural villages in the Middle East about 10,000 years ago. Since that time, human civilization has experienced many ups and downs. For many long periods, it must have seemed that civilization was a self-limiting process that could never rise above the handicraft level.
Exercise 2. Read paragraph 1. State the topic of the paragraph. Identify three periods, in the history of the problem. Characterize the ideas prevalent in each period. Find the sentences which provide arguments for or against the possibility of life on other planets.
Exercise 3. Read paragraphs 2-5. Divide the text into three parts copy out the dominant noun for each part and write down a title for each part.
UNIT 10.
Exercise 1. Read the text and be ready for a comprehension check-up.
The Jigsaw-puzzle (a set of irregularly cut pieces of wood or the like that form a picture or design when fitted together) fit of the coastlines on each side of the Atlantic Ocean must have been noticed as soon as the first reliable maps of the New World were prepared. It was as early as 1620 that Francis Bacon called attention to their striking resemblance. He did not go on, however, to suggest that the continents might once have formed a unified land mass. In the succeeding centuries suggestions to this effect were made, but they were far from being well grounded hypotheses, as it was mainly to some postulated catastrophe, such as the sinking of the mythical Atlantis or the Great Flood that the similarity of the coastlines was ascribed.
The hypothesis of the Continental Drift which is generally accepted nowadays was first presented to scientific community in 1912, but it was not until 50 years later that it gained general currency. When this view of the earth did replace earlier ideas (in the I960’s) it was only because of conclusive evidence derived from discoveries in geophysics and oceanography.
Exercise 2. Check up for comprehension.
1) Identify the dominant word group and follow it through its transformation into its equivalents. 2) What made it possible to notice the strange similarity of the coastlines on each side of the Atlantic Ocean? 3) What has been the basic idea underlying all the explanation of this similarity? 4) Why cannot we consider the earlier explanations to be well-grounded hypotheses? 5) What is the principal difference between the currently accepted hypothesis and the earlier ideas? 6) How long did it take the hypothesis of the Continental Drift to gain recognition?
UNIT 11.
Exercise 1. Read the text and be ready for a comprehension checkup.
MEET THE 21st CENTURY WITHOUT FEAR
The main task today is to ensure peaceful, secure and happy life. Such are our expectations which we are hoping to see come true before the year 2.000. We would like to see the world free of these problems. All of them should be resolved in the outgoing century. We would like to see in the new century guaranteed basic human rights to work, health care, education, housing and old-age security.
The 21st century might hold new prospects for us, it might direct our gaze beyond the limit of our terrestrial cares, paving the way to the distant stars and planets. Surely, preparations for the 21st century should start today. And central to these must; be effort for peace. We won’t be able to accomplish much if we fail to preserve peace. When we talk of peace, the question of war does not arise.
Mankind should meet the third millennium under peaceful skies and space without the fear of nuclear, chemical or any other threat, of destruction and with a firm confidence in the survival of the human-race. In today’s world development, disarmament and peace are interlinked. Without peace there can be no development. Space is the common heritage of mankind and should be used for the benefit of all. A positive movement based on the philosophy of peace, coexistence, friendship with all and concern for our common humanity should be the main values of our life.
Exercise 2. Check up for comprehension.
1) What would you like to see in the 21st century? 2) What prospects might the 21st century hold for us? 3) How should we prepare for it?
UNIT 12.
Exercise 1. Read the text and be ready for a comprehension checkup.
WOULD YOU BELIEVE IT?
Probably only a few people noticed that the local radio programme had been changed that night. Instead of the usual radio play, a band began to play dance music. After a while, the voice of the well-known announcer interrupted the music in the middle of the tune.
A strange object had lauded in an open field near New York City. Then there was an interview with a scientist from Princeton University who had gone to the place where the object had landed. He had a message of great importance for the American people, he said. Strange creatures with terrible weapons had come out of the object and it seemed that the United States was being attacked by enemies from Mars. His message was followed by an interview with police and military specialists who said that the public should remain calm, but should be prepared to defend home and country if it should prove to be necessary. The radio station would keep on informing the public as long as it could, but there was the possibility that the enemy would shortly take control over the whole country.
Soon after this, the telephone lines to the radio station and the police were blocked by hundreds of callers trying to find out where they could escape to. In no time thousands of people were leaving their homes and driving out of the city, blocking the roads. A whole city lost its nerve on that evening in the Thirties. Thus the radio play “The War of the Worlds”, produced by the young Orson Welles, became famous. It hit the headlines all over the world, and is regarded as one of the most interesting examples of crowd behavior.
Exercise 2. Check up for comprehension.
1) What happened one night in New York? 2) When did it all happen? 3) What was a scientist’s message? 4) How did the public react?
Exercise 3. Confide to your friend what you would do if you were there at that time.
UNIT 13.
Exercise 1. Read the text and express your opinion on the subject.
A WOMAN’S PLACE
Why can’t a woman be more like a man? So sang Professor. Higgins in “My Fair Lady”, the musical based on Bernard Shaw’s play “Pygmalion”. The poor professor was baffled. He couldn’t understand Eliza, the young girl he had saved from poverty. All that was wrong was that she was in love, but he accused her of being a typical woman –irrational, illogical and never thinking properly. Not like а man at all!
Today, many women are asking the same question as Professor Higgins but in a different way. Why can’t women be thought of as equal in intelligence to men and able to do many of the same tasks? Are men and women really so different or has history and conditioning made us think there is a difference?
Biologically, of course, there is – there has never yet been a man who bore a child – but the theory that there is a male character and a female character is not easy to prove. In Chinese philosophy there is the idea of Yin and Yang. Yin is earth, female, dark, passive and absorbing, while Yang is heaven, male, light, active and penetrating: the active male and the passive female. More recently, studies have shown that the division is not so clear and that most people contain a balance of male and female characteristics.
It is the biological difference, however, which has always meant that men had done one part to play and women another. In the earliest human groups or tribes, the work was divided in a simple way. Women stayed at home having children and growing fruit, vegetables and crops to feed the family. Ken went away from home to hunt animals which would provide more food. The partnership was equal and women were respected for the part they played.
Since that time, the status of women has gone through many changes sometimes being high and other times low. But the role of women has not changed. Today, as much as any other time, most women in the world are expected to make their lives around the home. The woman is the centrepoint of the family and provides the link between children and father, whilst the man represents the family outside the home in society.
But there has always been rebels – those who refused to accept their role and were determined to pursue another course. Hypatia was a respected teacher at the University of Alexandria in the fourth century B.C. and the renowned Frenchwoman, Joan of Arc, defied convention by dressing as a man and leading soldiers into a successful battle against the English in 1429.
Literature is an area in which women, like the Bronte sisters, have done well. Charlotte, Emily and Anne lived all their lives in the family home in Yorkshire, but, between them, they produced three of the classic novels of the English literature – “Jane Eyre”, “Wuthering Heights” and “The Tenant of Wildfell Hall”.
The world of science is one which women have found hard to penetrate, but the Polish-born Marie Curie managed it. Her research into radioactivity and the discovery of radium was the beginning of nuclear science.
All these women made sacrifices, often for the benefit of their families rather than themselves. Clara Schummann, wife of the composer Robert, gave up a brilliant career as a pianist and composer to support her husband in his work and look after their numerous children.
It is said that behind every powerful man there is a powerful woman, but very few women have gained power in their own right. Of course, many reached their position through their husband or family. It is interesting that many female leaders are remembered for their enlightenment – encouraging the arts and sciences and often setting up education health problems.
These women are the exception. For meet, life has had the same pattern for thousands of years. But there are an increasing number of women throughout the world who are looking for a change, who want to have a greater say in the way their family, village, town or country is run. In every country there are women working towards the improvement in the way their society regards them.
Representatives from 148 countries met at a conference in Copenhagen in 1980 to mark the halfway point in the United Nations Decade for Women. But the news on progress in the first five years was disappointing. Illiteracy among women had increased and the world economic crisis meant less work.
The conference was told that although over half the people in the world are female, they do two-thirds of the work, get one-tenth of the wages and own one-hundredth of the world’s property. It will be interesting to see if there are any improvements by the turn of the century.
UNIT 14.
Exercise 1. Read the text and time your reading speed, write a synopsis of the text in five sentences.
Making a decision on a career is not easy. Every university graduate is faced with it. There are many opportunities that are worth trying, and one of them is doing science.
The idea of taking up a post-graduate course is certainly very appealing and inviting, and no graduate can help being tempted by it. But not everyone is capable of withstanding all the difficulties involved in doing research. If you intend to become & post-graduate, you are advised to weigh all pros and cons, to look close into the advantages and disadvantages of the scientific career lest you should regret taking the step later.
It is no use asking for other people’s advice in this matter. Tastes differ, and one man’s meat is sometimes another man’s poison. People may have various hobbies: some are fool of dancing and light mule, whereas others may be seriously interested in collecting stamps or match-box labels, still others may enjoy pet breeding or painting. By asking your friends for advice you may find yourself in a predicament, not knowing whose advice to follow. Remember the English saying: So many men, so many minds. Also your friend may not be interested in doing science at all, and you will be ill-advised.
Do not depend on your parents advising either: they would naturally be tempted and flattered by such a prospect; they would insist on your doing science. Who would not like to see his son or daughter become a famous scientist? Most parents prefer their children choosing the career of a scientist rather than any other. Hence avoid consulting other people and try to make up your mind. And think hard.
You should realize there are many aspects of the problem. First of all, you should be absolutely sure that you will make a dedicated researcher, that you will give all your time and efforts to studying.
Then you must ask yourself if you are capable of doing scientific work, if you are interested enough in doing research to be ready to sacrifice all pleasures of life for science. It is the disadvantages of the work that you should consider first. They are numerous. And it is no good deceiving yourself that they do not matter. They do. And very much so.
Try to analyze where your interests lie, make sure you will enjoy dedicating your life to science. Having embarked on the field of science, you will know no peace of mind, no leisure, no rest, day after day your work will prevent you from visiting friends, from doing out, from playing with your children, from seeing relatives.
Moreover, your wife might (unless she is also a scientist) misunderstand your infatuation for work and take it for something else. She may start being jealous and unhappy, she might wish you would stop staying up at night, coming home late or not at all, wasting (as she would put it) your time, making all those numerous and pointless experiments of yours. In fact she might – wish you gave up doing science altogether andtook up some other trade or profession.
If you are a true scientist and enjoy working and living like that, if you do not mind sacrificing your life for science, if your work means everything to you, you will not give way, you will not jive it up, you will carry on doggedly doing your job, you will aim at solving the problem concerned, until one day you will succeed in finding the solution you have been searching all this time.
When that day comes, you will be the happiest man on Earth till you recognize another urgent problem awaiting its solution.
Whatever happens, you will never regret having chosen the career of a scientist. You will keep saying to your folks at home and to your friends. “It was worthwhile making all the effort.” But... There is always a but. The day of success may never come and you might be disappointed.
Now is the time for making a decision, for making up your mind, for thinking it over. Once you have started, you must keep going, never resting, never satisfied with yourself, always busy, worried and very often tired.
And still I am saying this: “It is worthwhile trying.”
What do you think?
UNIT 15.
Exercise 1. Read the text and compile a guide-paper for would be post-graduate students. Be ready to present it for approval of a contest jury.
HOW TO STAND UP FOR AN ACADEMIC DEGREE. INSTRUCTION TO POST-GRADUATE STUDENTS
It is no good writing a long thesis: it is not the novel “War and Peace” and you are not Leo Tolstoy. It is no use writing it briefly either: it either testifies to your great talent or lack of brains. Your opponents will forgive you neither.
Do not put on airs: it is not worth thinking that you alone are clever and all others are fools. Avoid using the arrogant first person singular: instead of saying “I assume”, “I suppose” use “It is assumed...” or “We suppose...”
Try the scientific value of your paper on your relatives and colleagues. If your paper is sophisticated enough, they will start pawning and fall asleep in no time, while listening to it or reading it. The sections that cause fits of laughter or anxiety need rewriting.
Although you will enjoy listening to the compliments of experienced people, do not be deceived by their singing praises to you.
Avoid inviting young scholars as your would-be opponents: they are always glad to jump at the opportunity of showing off and discrediting others. It is always more practical to invite merited and older scientists because the older they become the kinder and lazier they get.
If you ain at achieving success, read your paper in front of a mirror even if you dislike doing it.
When on rostrum, try to behave properly. Even if you cannot help feeling excited, stop swinging the pointer over the heads of the listeners, keep from waving hands, abstain from shouting and blowing your nose loudly.
Control your voice: if you try to speak as monotonously as you can the learned members of the Academic Board will start thinking of their own affairs or dozing off. Proceed demonstrating slides, tables, graphs and you will succeed in hitting the target.
Gumming up, express your appreciation and gratitude to all the people present, keeping strictly to the table of ranks.
When the formal procedure is over, providing you were a success, do not forgot to invite everybody for refreshments and a cup of coffee or tea.
UNIT 16.
Exercise 1. Read the text and prove why the ideal scientific supervisor must have these traits.