Контрольная работа 1
Text 1
Active Vocabulary
| degree | степень |
| connection | связь |
| indicate | определять |
| accept | принимать |
| treatise | научный труд |
| approximation | приближение |
| physicist | физик |
| point of view | точка зрения |
| calculations | вычисления |
| property | свойство |
| degree of cold | степень холода |
| boiling-point | точка кипения |
| Freezing point | точка замерзания |
| absolute temperature | абсолютная (термодинамическая) температура |
| determine | определять |
Read the text
Limit to the 'degree of cold'
The question whether there is a limit to the degree of cold possible, and, if so, where the zero must be placed, was first attacked by the French physicist Guillaume Amontons in 1702, in connection with his improvements in the air thermometer. In his instrument temperatures were indicated by the height at which a column of mercury was sustained by a certain mass of air, the volume or "spring" which of course varied with the heat to which it was exposed. Amontons therefore argued that the zero of his thermometer would be that temperature at which the spring of the air in it was reduced to nothing. On the scale he used the boiling-point of water was marked at +73 and the melting-point of ice at 51, so that the zero of his scale was equivalent to about −240 on the Celsius scale.
This remarkably close approximation to the modern value of −273.15 °C for the zero of the air-thermometer was further improved on by Johann Heinrich Lambert, who gave the value −270 °C and observed that this temperature might be regarded as absolute cold.
Values of this order for the absolute zero were not, however, universally accepted about this period. Pierre-Simon Laplace and Antoine Lavoisier, in their 1780 treatise on heat, arrived at values ranging from 1,500 to 3,000 below the freezing-point of water, and thought that in any case it must be at least 600 below. John Dalton in his Chemical Philosophy gave ten calculations of this value, and finally adopted −3,000 °C as the natural zero of temperature.
After J.P. Joule had determined the mechanical equivalent of heat, Lord Kelvin approached the question from an entirely different point of view, and in 1848 devised a scale of absolute temperature which was independent of the properties of any particular substance and was based solely on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics. It followed from the principles on which this scale was constructed that its zero was placed at −273.15 °C, at almost precisely the same point as the zero of the air-thermometer.
Match English and Russian equivalents.
| Degree | приближение |
| Connection | физик |
| Indicate | связь |
| Accept | вычисления |
| Treatise | научный труд |
| approximation | принимать |
| physicist | точка зрения |
| Point of view | свойство |
| calculations | определять |
| property | Степень |
Find English equivalents in the text.
| Воздушная масса |
| Степень холода |
| точка замерзания |
| В связи с |
| точка кипения |
| абсолютный нуль |
| абсолютная (термодинамическая) температура |
| Свойства вещества |
| Закон термодинамики |
| В любом случае |
Fill in the gaps with the wards given.
Treatise calculations property approximation physicist degree of cold boiling-point
1. Fundamental ____________ are studied at all technical departments of universities.
2. It took many ____________ before finding the right value.
3. It is known to every one that the____________ of water is 100 °C.
4. My ___________ was based solely on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics.
5. In Arctic the _____________ is above 50 °C.
6. ____________ of many countries tried to indicate the ___________ of mercury.
7. The results of scientific research in our laboratory showed very close ___________ to the results of French colleagues.
Translate the sentences from English into Russian.
1. After the physicist determined the equivalent everything became clear.
2. The process of cooling the substance depends on its properties.
3. Scientists observed the process of melting during two hours.
4. The volume of water varied with the conditions to which it is exposed.
5. The improvements in working conditions had positive results.
6. During the experiment the temperature in retort increased to the maximum degree.
7. J.P. Joule approached the question whether there is a limit to the degree of cold from an entirely different point of view.
8.
Answer these questions about the text.
1. Who gave a remarkably close approximation to the modern value of −273.15 °C and observed that this temperature might be regarded as absolute cold?
2. What did Lord Kelvin do basing solely on the fundamental laws of thermodynamics?
3.
Translate the sentences from Russian into English.
1. Научная работа студента была посвящена криобиологии и получила высокие оценки.
2. По шкале Амонтона точа кипения воды, находилась на отметке +73.
3. Под влиянием температуры и давления многие вещества меняют свои свойства.
4. Кусок мягкой резины, погруженный в жидкий азот, становится твердым и хрупким.
5. На конференции многие ученые спорили между собой, так как их точки зрения не совпадали.
6. Физические явления и химические реакции подчиняются законам термодинамики.
7. В современных лабораториях можно достичь температуры максимально приближенной к абсолютному нулю.
Контрольная работа 2
Text 2
Active Vocabulary
| Absolute zero | абсолютный нуль |
| define | определять |
| scale | шкала |
| precise | точный; определенный |
| substance | вещество |
| matter | вещество,сущность; содержание |
| exhibit | показывать |
| superconductivity | сверхпроводимость |
| super fluidity | сверхтекучесть |
Read the text
Absolute zero
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature where nothing could be colder, and no heat energy remains in a substance. Absolute zero is the point at which molecules do not move (relative to the rest of the body) more than they are required to by a quantum mechanical effect called zero-point energy.
By international agreement, absolute zero is defined as precisely 0 °K on the Kelvin scale, which is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale, and −273.15 on the Celsius (centigrade) scale. Absolute zero is also precisely equivalent to 0 °R on the Rankine scale (also a thermodynamic temperature scale), and −459.67 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale. Though it is not possible to cool any substance to 0 K, scientists have made great advancements in achieving temperatures close to absolute zero, where matter exhibits odd quantum effects such as superconductivity and super fluidity. One of the first to discuss the possibility of an "absolute cold" on such a scale was Robert Boyle in his 1665. In 2000 the Helsinki University of Technology has reported reaching temperatures of 100 pK (0.1×10−9K) and in 2003, researchers at MIT achieved 500 pK (0.5×10−9 K).