- That is right / Exactly… / Precisely…/ I hold a similar view about…
- It doesn’t make sense / It is unbelievable / That’s incredible / I find that very hard to believe / It’s an interesting idea but…
1. These can not be perfect laws.
2. No matter how generous and kind people may be they need laws.
3. In order to understand why a particular country has a particular legal system, it’s necessary to look at its history, political structure and social values.
TEXT B
Before reading the text learn to pronounce the following words correctly:
| [o:] court call board ordinance | [o] sovereign conflict follow authority abolish | [i] system exist original religion judicial | [i:] previously supreme |
| [æ] marriage statute | [e] federal separate amendment assembly appellate | [ai ] kind final bind | [ei] deprivation legislation administration allocation regulation |
| [ ] govern result publish justify | [ә:] certain purpose interpret further | [ju:] security supervise accuse |
KINDS OF LAW IN THE UNITED STATES
There are 51 basic legal systems in the United States: the federal system and a separate system in each of the 50 states. Although these systems are mainly similar, they also have important differences. For example, laws governing marriage and divorce are not the same in all states. The differences among legal systems exist because each of the original 13 states was previously sovereign (independent).
The US law consists of the following:
Ø the constitutions of the United States and of the 50 states, and charters or constitutions for cities or counties,
Ø the statutes enacted by elected representatives,
Ø Administrative law, and
Ø Case law, as expressed in court decisions.
These four types of laws - constitutional, statutory, administrative, and case - are each created by federal and state governments. Local governments generally create only statutory and administrative laws.
Constitutional Law
Constitutions are the supreme sources of law. The federal Constitution of the USA is said to be “the supreme law of the land.” This means that any state law - including a part of a state constitution - is void to the extent that it conflicts with the federal Constitution. The Supreme Court of the United States is the final interpreter of the federal Constitution and each state supreme court is the final authority on the meaning of its state constitution.
The federal and state constitutions allocate powers: (1) between the people and their governments, (2) between state governments and the federal government, and (3) among the branches of the governments.
The federal Constitution is the main instrument for allocating powers between persons and their governments. It does this with its first ten amendments to the constitution, called the Bill of Rights, which protect citizens from certain acts of their governments. Important rights of citizens are included in the Bill of Rights. They are:
Ø freedom of religion,
Ø freedom of speech, press, and peaceable assembly,
Ø security in person and property against unreasonable searches and seizures,
Ø right to remain silent if accused of a crime, and to have a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury,
Ø protection from any cruel or unusual punishment if convicted of a crime,
Ø right to fair compensation for private property taken by the government for any public purpose, and
Ø protection from deprivation of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.
The federal Constitution allocates certain governmental powers to the federal government and certain other powers to the state governments.
State and federal constitutions allocate governmental powers among the three branches of government: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. Constitutions do this to create a system of checks and balances among the branches so that no branch of government becomes too powerful.
Statutory Law
The Congress of the United States and federal legislatures are composed of elected representatives of the people. Acting on behalf of their citizens, these legislatures may enact new statutes.
All state legislatures have delegated some of their legislative authority to local governments. Thus, towns, cities, and counties can legislate in their own geographic areas on matters over which the state has given them authority. This legislation is created by a town or city council or by a county board or county commission. Legislation of this type is usually called an ordinance rather than a statute.
To be valid, the statute or ordinance must not conflict with the federal Constitution or state constitution.
Administrative Law
The federal, state, and local legislatures all create administrative agencies.
Although they are created by legislatures, administrative agencies are usually operated by the executive branch of the government. Thus, the President, governor, or mayor will supervise the agency’s activities. For example, the United States Congress created the Internal Revenue Service (an agency) and directed that the President appoint and supervise the staff of the agency.
The rules and regulations established by an administrative agency generally have the force of law. Like statutes, the regulations can be reviewed by courts to determine whether they are constitutional. In addition, the courts may invalidate a rule or regulation if it is beyond the scope of powers delegated by the legislature.
Case Law
Case law is created by the judicial branches of governments. Each state creates case law through its state courts. Similarly, federal courts establish federal case law. Case law is usually made after a trial has concluded and one of the parties has appealed the case. This may result in a review of parts of the trial by a higher court - a process called appellate review. When the appellate court publishes its opinion on a case, that opinion may state, and thereby create, new case law.
The effectiveness of case law arises out of the doctrine of stare decisis (Latin for «to abide by, or adhere to decided cases»). This doctrine requires that once case law is established, it must be followed by lower courts in other similar cases. Stare decisis generally does not strictly bind appellate courts because they can overturn their own case law when justified by new conditions or better understanding of the issues.
While courts are the final authority on the interpretation of constitutions and the constitutionality of statutes, rules, and ordinances, they are not the final authority on the content and meaning of such legislation. Legislative bodies can, in effect, nullify a court decision interpreting its statute, ordinance, or rule by abolishing or rewriting the statute or amending the constitution.
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TASKS
Task 1. Translate the following words, state their part of speech:
to differ, different, difference, indifference, indifferent; to express, expression, expressive; to decide, decision, decisive; authority, to authorize; to deprive, deprivation; to legislate, legislation, legislative, legislator, legislature; to administer, administrative, to administrate, administration; to establish, establishment; effect, effective, effectiveness.
Task 2. Read and translate the following word combinations:
legal system, the source of law, important differences, sovereign states, elected representatives, amendments to the constitution, federal legislatures, deprivation of liberty, due process of law, appellate review, legislative authority, executive power, court decision, to enact statutes, to convict of a crime, to supervise the activity of an agency.
Task 3. Match the following:
| sovereign deprivation amendments executive court legislative supreme due | power states decision to the Constitution of liberty process court authority |
Task 4. Match the term with its definition:
a)
| 1. Civil law | 1. Customs, traditions, judicial decisions and other materials, that guide courts in decision making, but that have not been enacted by the legislatures into statutes or embodied in the Constitution. |
| 2. Criminal law | 2. The body of codes that regulate the rights between individuals and organizations. |
| 3. Common law | 3. The branch of jurisprudence, that deals with offenses committed against the safety and order of the state. |
b)
| 1. Procedural law | 1. Church or religious law. |
| 2. Statutory law | 2. Law derived from court decisions. |
| 3. Case law | 3. Law passed by a legislative body |
| 4. Canon law | 4. Rules specifying the manner in which substantive law is to be applied. |
Task 5. Complete the sentences using the text:
1. Four types of laws – constitutional, statutory, administrative and case – are created by …..
2. The federal Constitution is the main instrument for allocating powers between ….
3. Local governments create only …. laws.
4. State and federal constitutions allocate power among the three branches of government: … … ….
5. The Congress of the US and federal legislatures are composed of ….
6. Administrative agencies are usually operated by ….
7. The rules and regulations established by an administrative agency have the force of ….
8. Case law is created by ….
Task 6. Read and translate the sentences paying attention to the tense of the predicate:
1. Substantive law is the body of law that creates, discovers and defines the rights and obligations of each person in society.
2. Laws concerning rape, medical malpractice, income tax evasion are substantive in that they specifically define the acts, constituting rape, malpractice and evasion.
3. Procedural law is the body of law that specifies the manner in which substantive laws will be applied.
4. Law may be divided into civil and criminal categories.
5. The deciding judge usually takes into account past case decisions in cases involving similar conditions or precedent in handing down case law.
6. The plaintiff in all criminal cases will be a governmental entity – federal, state or local, since the state is considered to be an injured party in such cases.
7. There are several categories of persons who cannot be convicted of crimes because they are said to be incapable of forming criminal intent – juveniles, insane and severely restarted.
8. When Canon law came to England, courts of equity were established.
9. Law is dynamic or constantly changing and is one form of social control that helps societies adapt to changing conditions.
10. The body of criminal law may be analyzed in a variety of ways – using categories such as substantive v. procedural;law, case v. statutory law and so forth.
Task 7. Answer the questions to the text:
1. What is the cause of differences among legal systems in different states?
2. What is the Constitutional Law?
3. What is the Statutory Law?
4. What is the Administrative Law?
5. What is the Case Law?
Vocabulary
abide by – придерживаться
adhere – оставаться верным
administrative agency – правительственное учреждение
allocate – распределять
amendment to the constitution – поправка к конституции
appellate review – апелляционный пересмотр
behave – вести себя
behaviour – поведение
benefit – выгода; польза
beyond (one’s) scope – вне (чьей-л.) компетенции
bind – обязывать, связывать, ограничивать
Case law – прецедентное право
charter – устав, хартия
Common Law – общее право
community – общество
county – графство (административно-территориальная единица в Англии), округ (административно-территориальная единица в США)
custom – обычай
damages – убытки; возмещение убытков
delegate (authority) – передавать полномочия, поручать
deprivation of life – лишение жизни
describe – описывать
descriptive – описательный, описывающий
divorce – развод
due - должный, надлежащий, соответствующий
employ – нанимать
employment – занятость, работа
enact – предписывать, устанавливать; вводить закон
enact a law – принимать закон
fine – штраф
impartial – беспристрастный, непредвзятый, объективный
imperfect (adj.) – несовершенный
impose – налагать
invalidate – лишать законной силы
investigate – расследовать
issue – предмет тяжбы
kidnap – похитить с целью выкупа
kidnapper – похититель
kidnapping – похищение
law – закон, право
legislature – законодательная власть; законодательные учреждения
lower courts – суды первой инстанции
maintain – поддерживать
murder – убить (умышленно)
murder – убийство
murderer – убийца
nullify – аннулировать
obey – слушаться, повиноваться, подчиняться
order – 1.порядок; 2. приказ
ordinance – указ, декрет, постановление
overturn – опровергать, отменять
own – владеть
penal – уголовно-исполнительный
penalty – наказание, штраф
predator – хищник (тж. перенос.)
prescribe – предписывать
prescriptive – предписывающий
property – собственность
prosecute – преследовать в судебном порядке
rob – грабить
robber – грабитель
robbery – кража, грабеж
Roman Law – римское право
rules and regulations – правила и нормативы
seizure – конфискация, наложение ареста
self-protection – самозащита
stare decisis – лат. букв, «стоять на решенном»
statute – статут, законодательный акт парламента
Statutory law – статутное право, право, выраженное в законах, “писаный закон”
steal (stole, stolen) – красть, воровать
system of checks and balances – система сдержек и противовесов
the United Nations Organization – Организация Объединенных Наций
trade unions – профсоюзы
violate – нарушать
void – недействительный; не имеющий юридической силы
LESSON 2
GRAMMAR: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
TEXT A: HISTORY OF THE LAW
TEXT B: LAW IN ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME
TEXT C: HOW DID THE BRITISH LAW DEVELOP?
TEXT D: THE MAGNA CARTA
Conditional Sentences
Условные придаточные предложения в английском языке вводятся союзами if – если, unless – если не, а также словами:
| providing (that) provided (that) supposing (that) on condition (that) in case | при условии, что; если |
В зависимости от характера выраженного условия (реально это условие или нет), условные предложения делятся на реальные и нереальные.
Реальные условные предложения выражают выполнимое условие, относящееся к настоящему, прошедшему или будущему времени. В реальных условных предложениях, английских и русских, глагол употребляется в форме изъявительного наклонения.
E.g. If he is busy, I don’t come to him. Если он бывает занят, я не подхожу к нему.
If he was busy, I didn’t come to him. Если он бывал занят, я не подходил к нему.
If he is busy, I shall not come to him. Если он будет занят, я не подойду к нему.
Нереальные условные предложения выражают либо маловероятное, либо совсем нереальное, невыполнимое действие. В отличие от русских нереальных условных предложений, где и маловероятное и невыполнимое условие всегда выражается одной и той же формой глагола, совпадающей по форме с прошедшим временем в сочетании с частицей “бы”, английские нереальные условные предложения по способу выражения делятся на 2 типа:
1-ый тип – предложения, выражающие маловероятное или нереальное условие, относящееся к настоящему или будущему времени.
| Условное придаточное предложение | Главное предложение |
| Форма сослагательного наклонения совпадает с формой Past Indefinite. | would или should + Indefinite Infinitive (без частицы to) |
| 1. If he came here now, we should ask him for help. 2. If he had free time next Sunday, he would help us. 1. Если бы он пришел сейчас сюда, мы попросили бы его помочь. 2. Если бы у него было свободное время в следующее воскресенье, он помог бы нам. |
2-ой тип – предложения, выражающие нереальные (невыполнимые) условия, относящиеся к прошедшему времени (упущенная возможность в прошлом).
| Условное придаточное предложение | Главное предложение |
| Форма сослагательного наклонения совпадает с формой Past Perfect. | would или should + Perfect Infinitive (без частицы to) |
| 1. If he had come here yesterday we should have asked him for help. (But he didn’t come here yesterday) 2. If he had had free time last Sunday, he would have helped us. (But he had no free time). 1. Если бы он пришел сюда вчера, мы бы попросили его помочь нам. (Но он не приходил сюда вчера) 2. Если бы у него было свободное время в прошлое воскресенье, он помог бы нам. (Но у него не было свободного времени) |
