Тема 7.
TEXT A. Переведите текст и ответьте на вопросы, приведенные ниже.
Bookkeeping (Historical background)
Bookkeeping is an essential accounting tool. A small business or company may employ only one bookkeeper; large organizations may employ many bookkeepers, who use electronic equipment for a large part of their work. Each organization has its own bookkeeping requirements, but all systems operate on the same basic principles. The bookkeepers themselves must be accurate, good in math, and very careful to record each detail in its proper place.
About 3,000 b.c., the Sumerians, the Egyptians, and other peoples of the Middle East developed the first known business records. The results of tax collections, farming harvests, and the transactions of merchants were recorded by means of written numbers. The Romans, too, were prolific keepers of records. Indeed, Roman numerals were used in many parts of Europe until the fifteenth century a.d. The stimulus for modern bookkeeping came with the introduction of Arabic, or Hindu-Arabic, numerals and the decimal system in the twelfth century a.D. Most people today use Arabic numerals.
The two basic systems of bookkeeping are double-entry and single-entry. The double-entry method was perfected by the merchants of Venice during the fifteenth century and is still used today. The basic principle of double-entry bookkeeping is that every transaction has a twofold effect. In other words, a value is received and a value is yielded or parted with. Both effects, which are equal in amount, must be entered completely in the bookkeeping records.
Вопросы:
1. How do bookkeeping procedures in a large organization differ from those in a small one? Are the basic principles the same or different?
2. What are some of the basic requirements for a bookkeeper?
3. When were the first known business records kept? By whom? What kind of records were kept?
4. How did modern bookkeeping begin?
5. What are the two basic methods of bookkeeping?
6. When was the double-entry method introduced? By whom? What is its basic principle?
.
Тема 8.
TEXT A. Прочтите текст, сделайте письменный перевод и ответьте на вопросы, приведенные ниже.
Bookkeeping (Basic Ideas)
An account is a record of the financial transactions that concern one item or a group of similar items. The account includes categories of financial data for each area of interest during a specific period: the value at the beginning of a period, changes in value during the same period, and the value at the end of a period.
Anything of value that a business or organization owns is commonly known as an asset. Asset accounts include cash, which is the money on hand or in the bank; furniture and fixtures; accounts receivable, the claims against customers that owe money; stock or inventory; office supplies; and many others that show what the organization owns.
Debts owed to creditors are known as liabilities. If money is owed to an organization or person for things or services purchased on credit, this liability is called an account payable. Other liabilities include wages or salaries that are owed to employees, or taxes that have not yet been paid.
The value of the business to the owner or owners is known as capital. Other terms used to designate capital are proprietorship, owners' equity (usually abbreviated OE), ownership, or net worth.
A separate account is kept for each asset, liability, and capital item so that information can be recorded for each of them. Accounts are also maintained for income and for expenses, and like assets, liabilities, or capital, these accounts are also entered in the ledger, which is a detailed listing of all the accounts of an organization. Entries from all the journals are transferred to the ledger at regular intervals. This process is usually done monthly.
Journals, or books of entry, are designed to record information about different transactions, including sales, purchases, cash receipts, cash disbursements, and many others. Journals have two or more columns to record increases or decreases in the accounts affected by the transaction, and they often have space for a date and an explanation of the transaction.
An entry made on the left-hand side or column of an account is called a debit, while an entry made on the right-hand side or column is a credit.
Вопросы к тексту:
1.What is an account? What are three categories of financial data listed in an account?
2.What broad areas of interest is bookkeeping concerned with?
3.What is the difference between an asset and a liability? Give an example of each.
4.What is the term used for the value of a business to its owners?
5.What other terms refer to the same concept?
6.What is ledger? What kinds of accounts are entered in it?
Запомните эти слова:
Asset статья актива
stock инвентарь, запас, склад, наличный товар, резерв,
общее количество, фонд.
inventory опись, наличные товары, запасы,
материально-производственные товары.
Liability долговое обязательство, обязательство.
equity право (на средства предприятия).
ledger план счетов.
Тема 9.
Text A. Прочтите текст, сделайте письменный перевод и ответьте на вопросы, приведенные ниже.
Auditing
Auditing is an accounting function that involves the review and evaluation of financial records. It is done by someone other than the person who entered the transactions in the records. Not so many years ago, the presence of an auditor suggested that a company was having financial difficulties.
Currently, however, outside audits are a normal and regular part of business practice. In addition, many corporations, especially the larger ones with complex operations, maintain a continuous internal audit by their own accounting departments.
Even those companies that do not conduct an internal audit need to maintain a system of internal control. Most good systems will provide accounting controls against errors, as well as a division of duties to reduce the possibility of misappropriations.
Ideally, a business should use as many internal controls as are consistent with efficient operation. In practice, the cost of installing and maintaining control systems forces management to decide which control devices to use. If there are too many controls, a time may come when the company's employees are spending more time filling out forms than performing productive work.
Many companies employ their own accountants to maintain an internal audit. They continuously review operating procedures and financial records and report to management on the current state of the company's fiscal affairs. These accountants also report on any deviations from standard operating procedures; that is, the company's established methods for carrying on its operating and recording functions. The internal auditors also make suggestions to management for improvements in the standard operating procedures. Finally, they check the accounting records in regard to completeness and accuracy, making sure that all irregularities are corrected. Overall, the internal auditors seek to ensure that the various departments of the company follow the policies and procedures established by management.
Вопросы по тексту:
1.What is an audit?
2.What is internal audit?
3.What is an independent audit? Who conducts independent audits?
4.What are the functions of the accountants conducting internal audit?
5.What are standard operating procedures?
Запомните следующие слова:
currently в настоящее время
in addition кроме, помимо
to maintain поддерживать, проводить =conduct
fiscal финансовый
to seek стремиться
to ensure обеспечить, гарантировать
Тема 10.
TEXT A. Прочтите текст, переведите его.