Week 9
Text “History of money”
Grammar: The Participle
Communicative practice: “At the pharmacy”
Text “History of money”
The use of barter-like methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago, though there is no evidence of a society or economy that relied primarily on barter. Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along the principles of gift economics and debt. When barter did in fact occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or potential enemies.
Many cultures around the world eventually developed the use of commodity money. The shekel was originally a unit of weight, and referred to a specific weight of barley, which was used as currency. The first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. Societies in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Australia used shell money – often, the shells of the money cowry. According to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins. It is thought by modern scholars that these first stamped coins were minted around 650–600 BC.
The system of commodity money eventually evolved into a system of representative money. This occurred because gold and silver merchants or banks would issue receipts to their depositors – redeemable for the commodity money deposited. Eventually, these receipts became generally accepted as a means of payment and were used as money. Paper money or banknotes were first used in China during the Song Dynasty. These banknotes, known as "jiaozi", evolved from promissory notes that had been used since the 7th century. However, they did not displace commodity money, and were used alongside coins. In the 13th century, paper money became known in Europe through the accounts of travelers, such as Marco Polo and William of Rubruck. Marco Polo's account of paper money during the Yuan Dynasty is the subject of a chapter of his book, “The Travels of Marco Polo”, made into something like paper, to pass for money all over his country. Banknotes were first issued in Europe by Stockholm Banco in 1661, and were again also used alongside coins. The gold standard, a monetary system where the medium of exchange are paper notes that are convertible into pre-set, fixed quantities of gold, replaced the use of gold coins as currency in the 17th-19th centuries in Europe. These gold standard notes were made legal tender, and redemption into gold coins was discouraged. By the beginning of the 20th century almost all countries had adopted the gold standard, backing their legal tender notes with fixed amounts of gold.
After World War II, at the Bretton Woods Conference, most countries adopted fiat currencies that were fixed to the US dollar. The US dollar was in turn fixed to gold. In 1971 the US government suspended the convertibility of the US dollar to gold. After this many countries de-pegged their currencies from the US dollar, and most of the world's currencies became unbacked by anything except the governments' fiat of legal tender and the ability to convert the money into goods via payment.
The word "money" is believed to originate from a temple of Hera, located on Capitoline, one of Rome's seven hills. In the ancient world Hera was often associated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was the place where the mint of Ancient Rome was located. The name "Juno" may derive from the Etruscan goddess Uni (which means "the one", "unique", "unit", "union", "united") and "Moneta" either from the Latin word "monere" (remind, warn, or instruct) or the Greek word "moneres" (alone, unique).
Grammar: The Participle
The participle is a non-finite form of the verb which has a verbal and an adjectival or an adverbial character.
There are two participles in English — Participle I and Participle II, traditionally called the Present Participle and the Past Participle.
N o t e. — These traditional terms are open to objection on the ground that
Participle I does not necessarily refer to the present, just as Participle II need
not refer to the past. The difference between them is not a difference in tense,
but, chiefly a difference in voice.
Participle I is formed by adding the suffix ‑ing to the stem of the verb; the following spelling rules should be observed:
(a) If a verb ends in a mute e, the mute e is dropped before adding the suffix ‑ing: to give — giving, to close — closing.
(b) If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a vowel rendering a short stressed sound, the final consonant is doubled before adding the suffix ‑ing: to run — running, to forget — forgetting, to admit — admitting.
A final l is doubled if it is preceded by a vowel letter rendering a short vowel sound, stressed or unstressed: to expel — expelling, to travel — travelling.
(c) The verbs to die, to lie and to tie form Participle I in the following way: dying, lying, tying.
N o t e. — A final у is not changed before adding the suffix ‑ing: to comply —
complying, to deny — denying.
As has already been stated, the participle has a verbal and an adjectival or adverbial character. Its adjectival or adverbial character is manifested in its syntactic functions, those of attribute or adverbial modifier.
I hated the hollow sound of the rain pattering on the roof. (Dtt Maurier) (ATTRIBUTE).
Мне был отвратителен глухой шум дождя, стучавшего по крыше.
And then she turned to the title-page, and looked at the name written in the schoolboy hand. (Ch. Bronte) (ATTRIBUTE)
Затем она открыла книгу на титульном листе и посмотрела на имя, написанное ученическим почерком.
Having garaged his car, he remembered that he had not lunched. (Galsworthy) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER)
Поставив машину в гараж, он вспомнил, что не завтракал.
When left to herself she spent her time at her writing desk. (Trollope) (ADVERBIAL MODIFIER)
Оставшись одна, она провела время за своим письменным столом.
N o t e. — Some participles have lost their verbality altogether and have
become adjectives: interesting, charming, alarming, etc., complicated,
distinguished, furnished, etc. E. g. an interesting book, a charming girl, the
alarming news; a complicated problem, a distinguished writer, a furnished
apartment.
The verbal characteristics of the participle are as follows:
1. Participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object.
Opening the door,he went out on to the terrace. (Galsworthy)
2. Participle I and Participle II can be modified by an adverb.
Leaving the room hurriedly,he ran out. (Thackeray)
Deeply effected, Priam Farll rose and left the room. (Bennett)
3. Participle I has tense distinctions; Participle I of transitive verbs has also voice distinctions. In Modern English Participle I has the following forms:
| Active | Passive | |
| Indefinite | writing | being written |
| Perfect | having written | having been written |
The tense distinctions of the participle.
Like the tense distinctions of all the verbals, those of the participle are not absolute but relative.
Participle I Indefinite Active and Passive usually denotes an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb; depending oh the tense-form of the finite verb it may refer to the present, past, or future.
When reading The Pickwick Papers,one can’t help laughing.
When reading The Pickwick Papers,I couldn’t help laughing.
When reading The Pickwick Papers, you will roar with laughter.
He looked at the carpet while waiting for her answer. (Galsworthy)
Он смотрел на ковер, ожидая ее ответа.
Не returned to the hut, bringing in his arms a new-born lamb. (Hardy)
Он вернулся в хижину, неся на руках новорожденного ягненка.
Not being able to read, think, or work, Bathsheba asked Liddy to stay and breakfast with her. (Hardy)
Так как Батшеба не была в состоянии (не будучи в состоянии) ни читать, ни думать, ни работать, она попросила Лидди остаться позавтракать с ней.
Being left alone, Pauline and I kept silence for some time. (Ch. Bronte)
Оставшись одни, мы с Полиной некоторое время молчали.
She did not speak, being filled with the sense of silent confidence. (Eliot)
Она не сказала ни слова; ее переполняло чувство доверия, не нуждавшееся в словах.
Sometimes Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to no particular time.
The last turning had brought them into the high-road leading to Bath. (Hardy)
После последнего поворота они вышли на дорогу, ведущую (которая
вела) в Бат.
Participle I Perfect Active and Passive denotes an action prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.
Mr. Bumble, having spread a handkerchief over his knees... began to eat and drink. (Dickens)
Мистер Бамбл, разостлав платок на коленях..., стал есть и пить.
They were, indeed, old friends, having been at school together. (Walpole)
Они и в самом деле были старыми друзьями, так как вместе учились в
школе.
Having already been informed that he always slept with a light in the room, I placed one of the two lighted candles on a little table at the head of the bed...
(Collins)
Так как мне уже сообщили, что он всегда спит при свете, я поставил
одну из двух зажженных свечей на столик у кровати.
It should be noted that a prior action is not always expressed by Participle I Perfect: with some verbs of sense perception and motion, such as to see, to hear, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look, to turn and some others, Participle I Indefinite is used even when priority is meant.
Turning down an obscure street and entering an obscurer lane, he went up to a smith’s shop. (Hardy)
Свернув на темную улицу и войдя в еще более темный переулок, он подошел к кузнице.
Hearing a footstep below he rose and went to the top of the stairs. (Hardy)
Услышав шаги внизу, он встал и вышел на лестницу.
Participle II has no tense distinctions; it has only one form which can express both an action simultaneous with, and prior to the action expressed by the finite verb; the latter case is more frequent.
His sister’s eyes fixed on him with a certain astonishment, obliged him at last to look at Fleur. (Galsworthy)
Взгляд сестры, устремленный на него с некоторым недоумением,
заставил его, наконец, взглянуть на Флер.
I was reminded of a portrait seen in a gallery. (Du Maulier)
Мне вспомнился портрет, который я видела в картинной галерее.
In some cases Participle II denotes an action referring to no particular time.
He is a man loved and admired by everybody.
Exercise 1. State the form and the function of Participle I. Translate.
1. Having traversed seven hundred miles he was now travelling toward the border of the United States. (Horgan) 2. There was a tiny smile playing about the corners of his mouth. (Stone) 3. He had a beautiful old house in Queen Anne Street, and being a man of taste he had furnished it admirably. (Maugham) 4. Dona Carlotta covered her face with her hand, as if swooning. (Lawrence) 5. Turning in anger, she gave John a shove, spilling his tea. (Lindsay) 6. To Maggie, the new protective gentleness of her son was sweet, and also very frightening. (Lessing) 7. Judging him by his figure and his movements, he was still young. (Collins) 8. Placing his drink upon the mantelpiece the ex-convict stood for a moment observing the young man out of the corner of his eye. (Cronin) 9. Being very tired with his walk however, he soon fell asleep and forgot his troubles. (Dickens) 10. He [Lincoln] raised his eyes, looked at her as though peering over the top of spectacles. (Stone) 11. There were four girls sitting on the wooden benches of the agency's front room. (I. Shaw) 12. Having shaken hands with them, he brought his own hands together with a sharp slap. (Priestley) 13. Manuel went in, carrying his suitcase. (Hemingway) 14. While pondering this problem, I sat in the dormitory window-seat. (Ch. Brontë) 15. I am going to Rome, having friends there. (Dickens) 16. There was sunlight coming in through the shutters. (Hemingway) 17. Abraham appeared at noon the next day, bringing with him two hundred dollars in cash. (Stone) 18. Much of the afternoon I looked out of the window, as though thinking, but not really thinking. (Snow) 19. He was thoughtful for a moment while leaning perilously close to the fire. (Stone) 20. Cecilia had heard very little being absorbed in her own reflections. (Crawford) 21. Having breakfasted, out I went. (Ch. Brontë) 22. He looked at his father listening with a kind of painful desperation. (Cronin) 23. She recrossed her legs comfortably, as though preparing for a long session on the sofa. (I. Shaw) 24. Never having encouraged friends to drop in spontaneously, she was almost totally alone. (Stone) 25. A cold wind swept the pavement, bearing a scrap of silver paper from a chocolate box across the lamplight. (Greene)
Exercise 2. Translate into English, using Participle II where possible.
1. На листе бумаги было несколько строк, написанных карандашом. 2. Если меня спросят, я скажу правду (to tell the truth). 3. В вазе было несколько увядших роз. 4. Я не люблю смотреть на посаженных в клетку животных (to cage). 5. Книга будет здесь, пока ее не спросят (to ask for). 6. Муж ее был отставным полковником. 7. Хотя он был очень удивлен, он не сказал ни слова. 8. Вот новые учебники, присланные для нашей школы. 9. Оставленный один в темноте, ребенок заплакал. 10. Студенты писали сочинение о системе образования в Англии, как она описана Диккенсом. 11. Солнце село, и деревья казались темными, как будто высеченными (to cut) из черного мрамора.
Exercise 3. State the function of Participle II. Translate.
1. Stirred by the beauty of the twilight, he strolled away from the hotel. (Cronin) 2. All the country near him was broken and wooded. (Aldington) 3. For a moment the trio stood as if turned to stone, (Murdoch) 4. Through the dark hall, guarded by a large black stove... I followed her into the saloon. (Mansfield) 5. If left to myself, I should infallibly have let this chance slip. (Ch. Brontë) 6. He spoke when spoken to, politely and without much relevance. (Hansford Johnson) 7. He cast upon her one more look, and was gone. (Hichens) 8. Miss Brodrick, though not personally well known in the county, had been spoken well of by all men. (Trollope) 9. Prepared, then for any consequences, I formed a project. (Ch. Brontë) 10. Thus absorbed, he would sit for hours defying interruption. (Stone)