legally binding agreement, enforcement, breach of contract, performance of a contract, bilateral contract, to be invalidated, party to a contract, valid contract, to reach an agreement
4. Finish the sentences translating the word combinations in brackets:
1. Many people think of a contract as а (письменное соглашение) between people. However there are many kinds of (устных соглашений) between people which the law of most countries describes as (договоры).
2. One of the most common (юридических исков) is to claim that the contract has existed and that one of the parties is in (нарушает договор).
3. There are many everyday (сделок) which most people never think of as contracts.
4. In order that the agreement should be a contract (стороны) must have shown an intention that their agreement should have legal consequences.
5. In order that а (надлежаще оформленный договор) between the (сторонами) should come into existence certain essential requirements must be fulfilled.
6. The simple contract must be supported by (встречное удовлетворение).
7. In many systems of law there is a written code stating exactly what is required to make a contract and what (права и обязательства) of contractors are.
5. Answer the questions:
1. What is a contract?
2. What is a treaty?
3. What is the normal method of enforcement?
4. How can contracts be classified?
5. What are three basic elements in the formation of a valid contract?
6. What does a contract consist of?
7. In what case may an innocent party have the right to set the contract aside?
Text 2
OFFER
If a contract is a legally binding agreement, the first question to consider is the method by which the court ascertains whether a contract is to be formed. The offer must express the definite intention on the part of the person organization making it (called "the offeror") to enter into the contract wilh the person or organization to whom or which it is addressed (known as "the offeree").
An offer may be defined as a statement of willingness to contract on specified terms made with the intention that, if accepted, it shall become binding contract. An offer may be express or implied from conduct. It may be addressed to particular person, a group of persons, or the world at large. A genuine offer must be distinguished from an "invitation to treat"; i.e. where a party is merely inviting offers, which it then free to accept or reject.
An offer must be clear and contain the details of the contract; for example, if A asks В 'would you like to buy my car' and B replies ‘yes’, there is no contract because the offer did not include an essential detail, the price.
The offeree may choose to accept or reject the offer but once it is accepted the contract is concluded and the parties are bound by its terms.
An offer may be withdrawn or revoked by the offeror at any time as long as it has not yet been accepted by the offeree. The offeror may revoke the offer even if he has given the offeree some time for acceptance. The purpose of giving the offeree a time-limit for acceptance is to indicate that the offer will lapse automatically if it has not been accepted before this time has expired, if the offeree wants to ensure that the offer should not be revoked before a certain time has expired he may do so by obtaining an option from the offeror. An option is a separate contract, made between the offeror and offeree, whereby in return for same consideration the offeror agrees to keep the offer open.
Notes
to ascertain – устанавливать, определять, выяснять, удостоверять; индивидуализировать (вещь, товар)
ascertained – индивидуализированный (о вещи, товаре); выясненный, установленный
ascertainment – установление, определение, выяснение, индивидуализация (вещи, товара)
offer – оферта
offeror/offerer – оферент, лицо, делающее предложение
to enter into a contract – вступать в юридически обязывающий договор
offeree – адресат оферты, лицо, которому делается предложение
offer and acceptance – оферта и акцентирование оферты
offer to the world/to a public at large – оферта, обращенная к неопределенному кругу лиц
invitation to offer – заявление к оферте; предложение сделать оферту
invitation to treat – предложение вести переговоры о заключении договора
to make an offer – сделать оферту
to accept an offer – принимать оферту/предложение
to reject an offer – отклонять оферту/предложение
to revoke/withdraw an offer – отозвать оферту
statement of willingness to contract – заявление о готовности вступить в юридически обязывающий договор
specified terms – точно определенные условия
express offer – прямо выраженная оферта
implied offer – подразумеваемая оферта
to lapse – истекать о праве
to expire – истекать о времени
to obtain an option – получать право выбора/опцион
option – выбор, право выбора; усмотрение; дискреционное право; опцион
consideration – встречное удовлетворение
Exercises:
1. Find in the text the equivalents of the following word-combinations:
1. рассматривать вопрос; 2. определенное/точное намерение; 3. вступать л юридически обязывающий договор; 4. со стороны лица; 5. заявление о готовности вступить в юридически обязывающий договор; 6. точно определенные условия; 7. прямо выраженная оферта; 8. подразумеваемая оферта; 9. быть адресованной (об оферте) неопределенному кругу лип; 10. быть связанными (о сторонах) условиями контракта; 11. получать право выбора/опцион
2. Find in the text the words to these definitions and translate them into Ukrainian:
1. to find out if a fact someone thinks true is really true
2. to request
3. to officially state that a law, decision, contract, etс, is no longer effective
4. to come to an end because an agreed time limit has passed
5. a choice
3. Make your own sentences using the following words and word-combinations and translate them into Ukrainian:
offer and acceptance; invitation to offer; to enter into a contract; specified terms; to obtain an option; express offer; lapse; to revoke an offer; expire
4. Answer the following questions:
1. What is an offer?
2. What must it express?
3. How many people can an offer be addressed to?
4. What types of offer can you name?
5. What is the difference between a genuine offer and an invitation to treat?
6. What essential element must an offer contain?
7. When is a contract concluded?
8. Can an offer be withdrawn by the offeror?
9. What is an option?
Text 3
ACCEPTANCE
Acceptance maybe defined as an unconditional assent, communicated by the offeree to the offeror, to all terms of the offer, made with the intention of accepting. Whether an acceptance has in fact occurred is ascertained from the behaviour of the parties, including any correspondence that has passed between them.
The offeree must accept the exact terms proposed by the offeror uncoditionally; i.e without introducing any new terms which the offeror has not had any opportunity to consider. The introduction of new terms is referred to as a ''counter-offer" and its effect in law is to bring to an end the original offer.
The offeree is always free to ignore an offer completely. The offeror can attach a time-limit to his offer and may consider the offer as lapsed if has not been accepted within this time, but cannot consider the offer as accepted if there has been no rejection communicated to him within the time fixed.
A mere mental acceptance of an offer is also insufficient to complete a contract. As a general rule, acceptance will not be effective unless communicated to the offeror by the offeree or by someone with his or her authority. The communication of acceptance must be actually received by the offeror, and, where the means of communication are instantaneous (oral, telephone, telex), (he contract will come into being when and where acceptance is received.
If the offeror prescribes a particular method of communicating acceptance and makes it clear that no other method will surface, then there may be no contract if a different method is used by the оfferee.
Where the offer does not prescribe a method of acceptance, the appropriate method may be inferred from the form in which the offer is made.
Notes
acceptance – акцепт
mental acceptance — молчаливым акцепт
conditional acceptance — неопределенный акцепт/условный акцепт
unconditional acceptance – безоговорочный, безусловный, неограниченный условием акцепт unconditional assent – безоговорочное согласие
introduce new terms – вносить на рассмотрение/ставить новые условия
counter-offer - встречное предложение
attach a time-limit - устанавливать срок
communicate (the acceptance) - сообщить об (акцепте)
complete a contract — завершить контракт
be effective — иметь силу
instantaneous — мгновенный, моментальный, немедленный, незамедлительный
come into being— вступить в силу
prescribe a particular method of communicating acceptance - предписывать определенный способ сообщения об акцепте
infer a method – заключать/подразумевать
Exercises
1. Find the equivalents of the following word-combinations:
1. безусловный акцепт; 2, условия оферты; 3, стороны (соглашения); 4. выдвигать новые условия; 5, встречное предложение; 6. первоначальное предложение; 7, устанавливать срок оферты; 8. отказ; 9. молчаливый акцепт; 10. завершать контракт; 11. иметь силу; 12. предписывать определенный способ сообщения.
2. Find the definitions:
time-limit a. happening immediately
assent b. the longest time in which you are allowed to do something
instantaneous c. approval or agreement from someone who has authority
to infer d. to state officially what someone can and can not do or what should be done in
to prescribe particular situation
e. to form an opinion that something is probably true because of other information
that you already know
3. Finish the sentence using the words in brackets:
1. One principle of English contract law is that there must be (оферта и акцент). 2. An advertisement to sell something is not normally (рассматривается как оферта). 3. Any deviation from the (условий оферты) is called (встречная оферта) which the (первоначальный оферент) is then free to (принять или отклонить). 4. The importance of determining which part of the transaction constitutes the (оферту) and which the (акцепт) rests on the fact that once (оферта акцептирована, контракт считается заключенным). 5. If, after this point, (одна из сторон) fails to perform his or her (обязательства), (другая сторона) may apply to the courts for legal remedy
4. Answer the following questions:
1. What is an acceptance?
2. What is an unconditional acceptance?
3. What is a counter-offer?
4. Is a mere mental acceptance of an offer sufficient to complete a contract? Why/Why not?
5. When may the offeror consider the offer as lapsed?
6. How can an acceptance be communicated to an offeror?
Text 4
СONSIDERATION
In addition to offer and acceptance and contractual intent, consideration is an essential element in the formation of any contract not by deed.
By consideration the law means valuable consideration, which must consist of something capable of being estimated in money.
It is a principle of law that a contract must be supported by consideration if it is to be legally valid. A contract is basically a form of exchange: the party receives in return for his act or promise something from the other party, and this something is referred to as the consideration.
Consideration is called "executory" where there is an exchange of promises to perform acts in the future, e.g. bilateral contract for the supply of goods where A promises to deliver goods to В at a future date and В promises to pay on delivery. Alternatively consideration is referred to as "executed" where the party performs an act of fulfillment of a promise made by the other, e.g. the unilateral contract where A offers a reward to anyone who provides certain information.
Both these types of consideration should be distinguished from “past” consideration Past consideration, unlike executory or executed consideration, is not good or valid consideration. Consideration is said to be past when it consists of some service or benefit previously rendered to the promisor. Whether consideration is past is a question of fact.
The parties to a contract are the persons who have provided consideration. The relationship that exists between them is that of the privity of contract. A person who has not provided any consideration but who has to benefit from the contract may not bring the action for breach of contract if the contract is not performed, as privity of contract did not exist between him and the party who failed to carry out his contractual promises.
NOTES
consideration – встречное удовлетворение
valuable consideration – надлежащее встречное удовлетворение
good consideration – удовлетворение через выражение благодарности
executory consideration – подлежащее исполнению встречное удовлетворение; будущее встречное удовлетворение
executed consideration – исполненное встречное удовлетворение (предложенное встречное удовлетворение)
past consideration – предшествующее встречное удовлетворение
provide consideration – предусматривать встречное удовлетворение
privity of contract – секретность/тай на договора
bring the action (for) – возбуждать иск
breach of the contract – нарушение договора
Exercises
1. Find the equivalents of the following word-combinations:
1. намерение заключить договор; 2. важный элемент; 3. заключение договора; 4. надлежащее встречное удовлетворение; 5. имеющий юридическую силу; 6. подлежащее исполнению встречное удовлетворение; 7. исполненное встречное удовлетворение; 8, двусторонний договор; 9. поставка товаром; 10, предлагать вознаграждение; 11 предоставлять определенную информацию; 12. секретность/тайна договора; 13. возбуждать иск; 14, нарушение договора; 15. выполнять договорные обещания
2. Make your own sentences using the following words and word-combinations and translate them into Ukrainian:
to perform acts; to deliver goods; to provide information, to render service; to bring an action for; legally valid; benefit
3. Fill in the gaps with prepositions where necessary and translate the sentences into Ukrainian:
1. Аll simple contracts, whether... writing or … word require consideration to support them.
2. … consideration the law means valuable consideration, which must consist.... something capable.... being estimated … money.
3. The consideration must be … some value.... the sight.... law.
4. Some writers have applied the term "good consideration"... such cases.
5. Only those … whom there is privity … contract can incur liability or acquire rights,... contract.... which he is not a party.
6, A person who has not provided any consideration but who has to benefit.... the contract may not bring action.... breach.... contract if the contract is not performed.
4. Answer the following questions:
What are the essential parts of the contract?
What does a valuable consideration consist of?
What is the difference between an executory consideration and an executed consideration?
What is past consideration?
Text 5
TERMS OF THE CONTRACT
Contracts consist of various statements, promises, stipulations, etc. grouped together under the word "terms". The terms may be expressed or implied. It is the terms of the contract which determine the extent of each party's rights and duties and the remedies available if the terms are broken and determined by the comparative importance of the terms.
Certainty. A contract may be void if the terms are not reasonably certain. In commercial transactions, the court may be prepared to enforce an ostensibly vague agreement by reference to trade custom or any previous dealing between the parties. It is possible that the parties themselves may provide the machinery for resolving an apparently uncertain terms, such as where the price of land is to be fixed by valuers appointed by the parties.
If an uncertain term is actually meaningless, then exceptionally the court may be prepared to sever the provisions if it is clearly superfluous.
Parol evidence rule. There is a general rule, "the parole evidence rule", that where a contract is embodied in a written document, then extrinsic (parol) evidence is not admissible to add to, vary, subtract from or contradict the terms of the written document. Extrinsic evidence is not confined to oral statement but can extend to written matter such as draft contracts and correspondence. This rule proved to be rather inconvenient and even unjust and the courts have evaded it by creating a number of exceptions.
The main exceptions to the parol evidence rule are: 1) custom; 2) operation of the contract; 3) validity; 4) evidence as to suplementary terms; 5) rectification; 6) collateral contract.
Notes
terms – условия договора
stipulation – условие, оговорка; соглашение, пункт соглашения
express terms – прямо выраженные или явно выраженные условия
implied terms – подразумеваемые условия
extent – объем, диапазон, степень, размер
break the terms – нарушать условия
remedy, remedies – средство судебной защиты; средство защиты права
certainty – несомненность; несомненный факт; уверенность
transaction – сделка
enforce – принудительно осуществлять/взыскивать в судебном порядке; обеспечивать соблюдение» исполнение; принудительно приводить в жизнь; обеспечивать санкцией; принуждать
enforce an agreement –обеспечивать соблюдение/выполнение договора
trade custom – торговый обычай
dealing – сделка, операция
provide the machinery for – обеспечивать механизм для чего-л.
apparently – очевидно, явно
sever – отделять/отделить; разрывать/разорвать
provision – условие, постановление, положение договора
superfluous – излишний
parole evidence – устные доказательства (не содержащиеся в документе за печатью)
be embodied in a written document – быть воплощенным в письменном документе
extrinsic – посторонний; не присущий, несвойственный
vary – менять, изменять
sabtract – вычитать, вычесть; неправомерно отказать в предоставлении прав или имущества
contradict – противоречить, опровергать
draft contract – проект контракта
operation of the contract – юридическая сила/юридическое действие контракта
validity – юридическое действие/срок действия
supliinentary terms – дополнительные условия
rectification – исправление, поправка; внесение поправки, исправления; устранение ошибки
collateral contract –дополнительный контракт
Exercises:
1. Find the equivalents of the following word-combinations:
1. определять средства судебной защиты; 2. быть недействительным (о контракте); 3. коммерческая сделка; 4. обеспечивать соблюдение контракта; 5. неопределенные условия; 6. устное заявление; 7. ограничиваться; 8. несправедливое правило; 9. избегать
2. Find the meaning of the following words in the text and translate the sentences with these words into Ukrainian:
statement; stipulation; remedy; machinery; provision
3. Find in the text the synonyms of the following words and translate the sentences with these words into Ukrainian:
deal/bargain
condition/provision
excessive/unnecessary
to dispute/oppose
to deduct/takeaway
4. Make your own sentences using the following words and word-combinations and translate them into Ukrainian:
to enforce an agreement; to determine remedies; to break the contract terms; to provide information; draft contract; operation of contract
5. Answer the following questions:
- What does a contract consist of?
- What do the terms of a contract determine?
- When can a contract be void?
- How can an ostensibly vague agreement be enforced?
- What is a "Parole Evidence Rule"?
- What are the main exceptions to the parole evidence rule?
Text 6