a) Type 1 conditionals
| If the dark energy density is constant or increasing with time, in 100 billion years or so all but a few hundred galaxies will be far too redshifted to be seen. Если плотность темной энергии постоянна или будет увеличиваться со временем, то приблизительно через 100 млрд лет все галактики, за исключением нескольких сотен, будут иметь слишком большое красное смещение, чтобы можно было их увидеть. |
1. Elastic collisions occur only if there is no conversion of kinetic energy into other forms, as in the collision of atoms. In the case of macroscopic bodies this will not be the case as some of the energy will become heat.
2. If thermal energy is released to the surroundings and cannot be recovered, it is said to be dissipated.
3. This equilibrium can maintain itself forever if there is no outside interference.
4. If the aim of your experiment is to measure a physical quantity that is already known, you should compare your experimental value with literature values.
b) Type 2 and type 3 conditionals
| If the value of the cosmological constant were much larger than it is, our universe would have blown itself apart before galaxies could form and life as we know it would be impossible. Если бы значение космологической константы было значительно больше, чем на самом деле, то наша вселенная взорвалась бы, прежде чем галактики могли сформироваться и жизнь, в том виде, как мы ее знаем, была бы невозможна. |
1. If an electric field were to be applied within the material, there would be a shift in the distribution of the electric momenta that could only occur if and only if the zones are at close energy proximity.
2. Were it not for the photon’s magnetic field, which couples to the electron’s magnetic moment, such flips would be impossible.
3. If every reading was repeated three times, it would be relatively easy to assess the uncertainty levels, and this technique would also allow large random errors to be immediately identified and checked.
4. If this scheme were to be realized, then it would be possible to have a type of nuclear reservoir, where the energy could be released with a photon ‘switch’.
5. If an electric field were to be applied within the material, there would be a shift in the distribution of the electric momenta that could only occur if and only if the zones are at close energy proximity.
6. If such a system were oriented so that an observer on the earth could see the X-rays coming from the neutron star, the companion star would never pass between the earth and the neutron star and no X-ray eclipses would be observed.
7. The eclipses would not be seen if the companion star were small enough to lie in the X-ray shadow of the accretion disk.
8. Because holograms reconstruct the wavefronts of that light, viewers perceive the light as if it were scattered from the object itself.
9. Even if we do discover a complete unified theory, it would not mean that we would be able to predict events in general.
IX. Oblique Moods
a) Conditional Mood
| Quantum physics might seem to undermine the idea that nature is governed by laws, but that is not the case. Могло бы показаться, что квантовая физика подрывает идею о том, что природа следует законам, но на самом деле это не так. |
1. But when two or more patches fail in a cascade that also prompts conditionally stable regions between them to slip seismically, the result is a much larger earthquake than one would otherwise expect from just the seismic patches alone.
2. Failure of a GPS satellite in orbit would result in periods of only three satellite coverage of approximately 30-minute duration over large geographic areas.
3. The cosmic neutrino background has not yet been detected; it is thought that it would have a temperature of about 1.9 Kelvin.
4. One might expect commensurate simplicity in the theories that describe such particles; at least one might expect the structure of the world to be explained with a minimum number of particles and forces.
5. One might hope to solve the problem of this seeming contradiction between observation and theory by saying that the ground state fluctuations have no gravitational effect, but this would not work.
6. To understand how a black hole might be formed, we first need an understanding of the life cycle of a star.
b) Subjunctive I
| Navigation using GPS generally requires thatthe usertrack four satellites to resolve his 3-D spatial position and time bias. Определение местоположения при помощи GPS обычно требует того, чтобы пользователь получал сигнал от четырех спутников, чтобы определить свое положение в трехмерном пространстве с учетом привязки по времени. |
1. Geometry plainly demands that such lattices have two-, three-, four-, or sixfold rotational symmetry.
2. If the metal plate be fastened to a glass rod or otherwise insulated, the tube may remain lighted if the plate be interposed, or may even increase in luminoscity.
X. Emphasis (it is …/ that / which / who)
a) Constructions: “it is only/ it was not until … that”
| It was Einstein who in the early 20th century argued that scientists needed to take Maxwell’s equations more seriously. Именно Эйнштейн в начале двадцатого века утверждал, что ученым нужно было с большим вниманием отнестись к уравнениям Максвелла. It was not until 1947 that a family of mesons with the appropriate properties was discovered. Только в 1947 году было открыто семейство мезонов с соответствующими свойствами. It is onlyif the lattice is not perfect that the electrons will be scattered. Только если решетка не имеет идеальной структуры, электроны будут рассеиваться. |
1. Applying this logic revealed that it is not just experiments that evolve in this way, but experimenters, too.
2. It was the experimental work of Robert Milikan at the University of Chicago, beginning in 1909, that provided the next step in establishing the electron as a fundamental particle.
3. Einstein’s predictions of light deflection could not be tested immediately in 1915, because the First World War was in progress, it was not until 1919 that a British expedition, observing an eclipse from West Africa, showed that light was indeed deflected by the sun, just as predicted by the theory.
4. It is only within the past two decades that mass digital storage has become sufficiently inexpensive to challenge film as an information storage medium.
5. It was not until 1955 that particle beams were made sufficient energetic to enable these antimatter particles to be observed.
6. It was Max Born who saw that the Schrodinger wave mechanics may be put into the form of a probability calculus.
c) Emphatic(do/ does/ did)
| What science does demand of a theory is that it be testable. Что действительно требуется от теории с научной точки зрения, так это возможность подвергнуть ее проверке. |
1. More recently (1998-99), Japanese and US groups have put forward theories and corroborating experimental evidence to suggest, indirectly, that neutrinos do have mass.
2. It has been known experimentally that electrons do couple to spin waves.
3. Although the presence of the lattice alone does not give rise to electron scattering, except under special conditions, the periodic potential generated by the lattice does change the distribution of the electron states given by the simple free-electron model.
4. The Copenhagen interpretation is the one most generally accepted by physicists but it does imply certain apparent paradoxes.
5. However, there are at least three arrows of time that do distinguish the past from future.
6. Although this technique is rather dubious mathematically, it does seem to work in practice.
7. Starting with a simple example does help to understand the more complicated ones.
8. This eclipse does exist, but superimposed on it he detected a wavering that clearly had nothing to do with the manner in which the Earth moves about the Sun.
XI. Inversion
| Only with theory can we explore the connection between neutron-rich matter in the Cosmos and in the laboratory. Только с помощью теории мы можем исследовать связь между богатой нейтронами материей в космическом пространстве и в лабораторных условиях. |
1. Also shown here is the measured phase pattern of the beam.
2. Of greater use, especially in space technology, are the various types of low-voltage nuclear-batteries. Typical is the gas-ionization device in which a better-emitter ionizer a gas in an electric field.
3. Not only has this terminology flooded the popular science literature and textbooks, but for a long time it dominated most serious monographs on relativistic physics.
4. Of particular importance is the determination of the symmetry energy at supra-saturation densities.
5. Photons have a mass of zero when at rest and therefore do not act as a source of gravitational field, nor do they respond to one in the ordinary fashion.
6. The confirming results were not terribly convincing … Nor were theorists unanimous in accepting relativity theory or in interpreting its equations.
7. Small though this effect is, it had been noticed before 1915 and served as one of the first confirmations of Einstein’s theory.
8. Therefore, not only are energy conversion and signal collection in a silicon diode simpler than that described for an indirect detector, they are faster (on the scale of nanoseconds) and offer high spatial resolution (on the scale of microns).
9. No longer is there any serious debate as to whether black holes exist.
XII. Noun chains
| energy level- уровень энергии - энергетический уровень |
1. The superfluid He quantum interference device, or SHeSQUID, is a quantum phase meter that directly measures shifts in the superfluid wave function phase.
2. Superfluid helium is a macroscopic quantum system, as are superconductors, gaseous Bose-Einstein condensates, and the interiors of neutron stars.
3. This figure clearly shows that the star formation rate has been increasing over the past 10 million years.
4. The Orion Nebula Cluster as a whole is young enough that its lowest-mass members are still in the pre-main-sequence phase.
5. The line width for the state-of-the-art lasers at national metrology labs is on the order of a hertz, so order-of magnitude improvement may be possible, at least in principle.
6. It was not explained why some cloud precipitation systems seem to oscillate and others remain steady.
7. Whereas the triplet-state atoms feel an attractive trapping potential from the light, the singlet-state atoms feel a repulsive one.
8. Water vapor condenses into the liquid droplets and make up a cloud, with aerosol particles serving as condensation nuclei.
9. Aerosol particles mediate the precipitation-cloud interaction: the higher the aerosol concentration, the more numerous the water droplets and the longer it takes for the droplets to grow large enough to coalesce into rain.
10. The tidal energy spectrum contrasts dramatically with the ocean’s nontidal hydrodynamic energy, which is spread across the frequency spectrum to manifest random wind-driven changes in water level.