The Cabinet
The top ministers form an elite group of about 20, known as the Cabinet. These are the people who sit round a table with the Prime Minister (PM) and decide on the policies of the government. They have a rule of collective responsibility: in public they all have to agree with the decisions of the whole Cabinet. The role of the PM is extremely important: he or she appoints all the members of the government, so every one of them owes their job to the PM. It is very hard to be independent, still less rebellious, in such circumstances. But much depends on the personal style of the PM. As with managers in business, or sports captains, some leaders are more authoritarian than others.
In recent times John Major was a PM who preferred co-operation and consensus. Tony Blair did not appear to tolerate opposition within his own party. Mrs. Thatcher, the Iron Lady, was so tough that her Cabinet colleagues were all terrified of her. She once wrote: «I don't mind how much my ministers talk as long as they do what I say.» There is always a danger that the PM can take of a more presidential role, and in Mrs. Thatcher's time people started to talk about the system becoming an «elected dictatorship.»
Mrs. Thatcher may have shown how dictatorial a PM can be. But, unwillingly, she also showed the limits of the post. When she became unpopular in the country, the Conservative Party saw that it was going to lose the next election because of her, and so it sacked her. Remember that the PM is the leader of the majority party; and that party can always change its leader if it is unhappy.
Discussion
- Describe the modern Cabinet system in the UK.
The Prime Minister and Civil Service in Great Britain
The man who not only presides over the Cabinet, but personally chooses it is the Prime Minster. He nominates the members of the Cabinet and has the right to ask for the resignation of any of them. Following an election, the Monarch calls the Parliamentary leader of the majority party to be Prime Minister and to form a Cabinet. Parliament accepts the appointment of the Prime Minister and his Cabinet. The Prime Minster keeps in his safe the seals of every Minister's office, and the write of every member's seat. Discussion in Cabinet is very brief and the Cabinet never votes – the Prime Minster's decision is final. Responsibility, on the other hand, is collective. This means that if the Prime Minster resigns, the whole Cabinet resigns, too.
Each department of the Government has a large staff of professional civil servants who do most of the running of the department on the minister's behalf. The civil service consists of three main grades – the administrative class, the executive class and the clerical class. The clerical class is mostly recruited from pupils who have passed their School Leaving Certificate (General Certificate of Education), or completing secondary education. The executive class is filled either by successful persons, who have passed their General Certificate of Education at advanced level, or university graduates. The administrative class is particularly selective. The vast majority comes from public schools and from Oxford especially, chosen carefully by examination and interview. This class is closely connected with the ruling families. In this grade, the civil servants act as heads of departments, deputy heads, under-secretaries of state and generally as advisers to ministers.
Answer the following questions
1. Who usually becomes Prime Minister in Great Britain?
2. Who takes the final decision: the Cabinet or the Prime Minister?
3. What does collective responsibility mean?
4. What main grades does the civil service consist of?
5. Where do people come from to form the administrative class?
Are the following sentences true or false? Correct the false sentences.
1. The Queen nominates the members of the Cabinet and has the right to ask for the resignation of any of them.
2. Civil servants are not usually professionals in Great Britain.
3. The executive class of civil servants is recruited from pupils who have passed the G.C.E. at advanced level, or university graduates.
4. The officials from the administrative class are closely connected with the ruling families.
The two-party system
The voting arrangements in Britain have always tended to produce two major parties. In the 18th century, it was Tory versus Whig, then Tory versus Liberal, and in modern time, Conservative versus Labour. This fact is reflected in the constitution itself. The second biggest party in the House of Commons becomes the Official Opposition; its leader is paid a salary from the public purse and given an office.
As in the legal system the parties confront each other and argue. The House of Commons is built for confrontation: two sets of seats face each other across a neutral no-man's land. In fact, the space between the two sides is two swords' length and one foot, to prevent fights! This theatrical way of doing things has some advantages. For one, it is easy for the public to understand. Also, it means that the government is always being publicly challenged, which is good for democracy.
It is significant, however, that the new Scottish parliament Chamber is built on a different model – horse-show shape around a central Speaker's platform. This reflects the new voting system for Scotland, a form of proportional representation. If the rest of the UK moves away form the current first-past-the-post system, there will be more parties in Westminster, and there is likely to be a profound change in the way politics is done.
Discussion
- If you were a prime minister, would you be dictatorial?
- Do you have two dominant parties in your country, or a number of smaller ones?
Reading 5
Democracy in Britain
Language focus
cornerstone – краеугольный камень
violation – нарушение, попрание, насилие
observation – наблюдение, соблюдение (законов, правил)
adequate – соответствующий, адекватный, достаточный
disability – нетрудоспособность
compulsory – обязательный
to promote – способствовать, поддерживать, поощрять, стимулировать
understanding – понимание, разум, взаимопонимание
tolerance – терпимость, толерантность
resident – постоянный житель
taxation – налогообложение, взимание налога
Great importance is attached in Britain to human rights. Respect for individual freedoms forms a cornerstone of Britain's democratic system. British public opinion is concerted about violations of human rights throughout the world. The British government regards the observation of human rights and their protection as an important element of its foreign policy.
These rights and freedoms are listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948. They include the right to: work; an adequate standard of living; social security; education; the highest attainable health care standards; form and join trade unions; participate in cultural life.
Work
Everyone has the right
-to work,
-to free choice of employment,
-to just and favorable conditions of work,
-to protection against unemployment.
Standard of living
Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, and old age.
Social Security
The social security system aims to provide financial help to people who are elderly, sick, disabled, unemployed, widowed or bringing up children. The system includes contributory national insurance benefits covering sickness, invalidity, unemployment, widowhood and retirement. There is also statutory sick pay paid for their employees by employers.
Education
Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups.
Health
The National Health Service (NHS) provides comprehensive health care to all residents. Treatment is based on medical priority regardless of patients' income and is financed mainly out of general taxation.
Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.
Discussion
1. What forms a cornerstone of Britain's democratic system?
2. What is British public opinion concerned about?
3. What does the British government regard s an important element of its foreign policy?
4. When was the Universal Declaration of human Rights adopted by the UN General Assembly?
5. What do the main right and freedoms include?
6. What does the right to work include?
7. What does the right to a standard of living include?
8. What does the social security system aim to?
9. What shall education promote?
10. What does the National Health Service provide?
Reading 6
THE HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT
Language focus
session – заседание, сессия
abbey – аббатство
to entertain – принимать, угостить
set – установленный, предписанный
reluctance – неохота, нежелание
replica – реплика, точная копия
Close by Westminster Abbey on the riverside stands the Palace of Westminster, generally known as the Houses of Parliament. Although these buildings are in Gothic style, they are not truly historic, for they were built in 1840 on the site of the old Palace which was destroyed by fire in 1834.
Parliament consists of two separate chambers whose membership and duties have evolved slowly over centuries: the House of Lords (or Upper House), whose members sit there by hereditary right or conferred privilege (there is an increasing number of life peers, whose titles cease when they die), and the House of Commons, where the elected Members of Parliament sit.
Although the Upper House is the larger in membership – more than one thousand peers have the right to attend the sittings – nearly all the legislation is initiated in the House of Commons and presented to the lords for approval. This is, however, little more than a formality, for the powers of the House of Lords are strictly limited. The Queen opens Parliament at the House of Lords.
The six hundred and fifty elected members of the House of Commons meet in a Chamber which is still sometimes called St. Stephen's Chapel. The original chapel where the first parliaments assembled centuries ago was lost in 1834, and the present Chamber is a replica of the one built in 1840, but destroyed during World War II. The members sit on two sides of the Chamber, one side for the Government and the other for the Opposition. Between them sits «Mr. Speaker,» who acts as chairman in the debates. Traditionally, his role was to inform the House of Lords and the monarch of decisions taken by the elected parliament, and as there have been periods in British history when such a duty could be dangerous, the member chosen to be Mr. Speaker always accepted the position with the pretence of great reluctance and fear!
It is a privilege of democratic government that anyone may visit the Houses of Parliament and may sit in the Strangers' Gallery, looking down into the House of Commons, to listen to a debate. The Central Lobby entrance hall is usually busy with people coming and going, some just curious to see the inside of the buildings, others wanting to see their own elected MPs. On fine days, the terrace overlooking the river is crowded with small tables where Members can entertain their guests to tea.
The Parliamentary session begins in November and, with recessions at holiday periods (Christmas, Easter and in summer), lasts for about one hundred and sixty days. The sittings begin at 2.30 p.m. from Monday to Thursday and at 11 a.m. on Friday. There is no set finishing time for sittings and if there is urgent business to discuss the sittings may go on until late at night or, indeed, all through the night. All the time Parliament is in session, a flag flies at the top of the Victoria tower, and when the House is still sitting after dark, a light burns over the clock face of Big Ben.
Discussion
1. Where are the Houses of Parliament situated?
2. What is another name for them?
3. When were the present Houses of Parliament built and why?
4. What are the two Chambers in Parliament?
5. What is the present role of Mr. Speaker and what was it in the past?
6. Where do visitors to the House of Commons sit?
7. When is Parliament actually in session?
8. What signs are there which indicate when Parliament is sitting?
The British Houses of Parliament
The House of Commons meets every Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday and Thursday at 2.30 p.m. Normally it sits until 10.30 p.m. although sometimes the debates continue until well after midnight.
The life of Parliament is divided into periods called sessions. At the end of every session Parliament is prorogued; this means that all business which has not completed is abandoned, and Parliament does not meet again until it is formally summoned by the Monarch.
The beginning of a new session is marked by the State Opening of Parliament. This ceremony takes place in the House of Lords, with a few members of the Commons crowded together at the far end of the Lord's Chamber. The Monarch reads the Speech, which is a document, prepared by the Government. In this speech the Government gives a summary of the things which it intends to do during the Session which is about to begin. A debate on particular aspects of the Monarch's speech follows, usually lasting five or six days. When the debates on the Speech are finished, Parliament begins with the work of the session.
The British Parliament is often referred to as the Legislature – the body which makes laws. New laws can only come into force when they have passed through Parliament and got the Royal Assent. A proposal for a new law is known as a bill. Most bills, and nearly all important bills, are introduced by the government about fifty bills are passed each year. Every bill brought in by the Government has been approved first by the Cabinet.
Once the Government has decided to introduce a bill, one minister is put in charge of it. The preparation of the text often takes many months, with long consultations involving civil servants in the minister's department and with the parliamentary Counsel.