Лексические – лексическая замена.
А) конкретизация.
Bad fish - тухлая
Bad smell - неприятный
Bad headache - сильная
A bad finger - больной
Bad mistake - грубая
Bad coin - фальшивая
Bad debt - крупный
Б) генерализация – трансформация обратная конкретизации.
He was 6 feet 3 inches tall – он был очень высокого роста
He visits me every weekend – он приезжает каждую неделю
Then this girl gets killed cause she is always speeding – потом девушка гибнет, потому что она постоянно нарушает правила.
3) Лексико-грамматические
А) антонимический перевод – замена понятия ИЯ противоположным ему понятием в ПЯ. Наиболее типичная модель АП – замена утвердительной конструкции на отрицательную и наоборот. The Government tried hard to keep down the taxies – Правительство прилагало все усилия, чтобы не допустить повышения налогов.
Martha stayed out of the kitchen - Марта не заходила в кухню.
В некоторых случаях АП – единственный вариант для передачи какой-либо единицы (till, until, unless, to be nothing but и др). Don’t make a move unless you have a good plan – не предпринимайте ничего, пока у вас не будет четкого плана.
Б) семантическое развитие – заключается в том, что изменяется целый смысловой комплекс на основе логической связи между двумя явлениями по принципу причинно-следственных отношений. I’m sorry it wasn’t my fault. I had the right of way – Жаль, но я не виноват. Вы должны были уступить мне дорогу. His fate was intended to send a message – его участь должна была послужить назиданием для других.
В) опущение – трансформация противоположная добавлению, ее применение должно быть строго ограничено. The meeting was general and normal – собрание прошло обычно. Their only stay and support – их единственная опора.
A little while later I still had it with me, when we got on the bus – я все еще держал его в руках, когда мы сели в автобус.
I can’t leave the room and send myself to you at the same time, can I? – не могу же я уйти из комнаты и в то же время прислать самого себя к Вам.
Г) добавление – затрагивает лексическую и грамматическую стороны, используется в случае необходимости пояснения транскрипции или транслитерации, для перевода безэквивалентной лексики или при компенсации. Не следует злоупотреблять этой трансформацией.
The attendant came around for Mrs Moreau’s ticket – кондуктор подошел, чтобы проверить билет у миссис Мороу.
Д) компенсация – способ передачи лексических и стилистических особенностей текста в случае несовпадения стилистических приемов в ИЯ и ПЯ. Используется для передачи особенностей речи, сохранения ритма, игры слова, стилистической целостности текста.
You can’t have no rolls – а булочков-то не будет.
22.01.2019
Functional styles
1) The Belles-lettres style: a) poetry b) emotive prose c) drama
2) The publicistic style: a) oratories & speeches b) essays c) journalistic articles
3) The newspaper style: a) the editorial b) headlines c) ads & announcement d) brief news items
4) The Scientific prose
5) The style of official documents
The publicistic style.
The general aim: is to produce a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the opinion of the speaker or the writer and the interpretation of the events are the only correct one and that it is necessary to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essay or article. The ways to achieve that are logical argumentation and emotional appeal.
This functional style has some features of scientific prose (logical argumentation) and of emotive prose or literary fiction, but still it is closer to the belles-lettres style than to the scientific one.
Structural peculiarities:
1) Logical argumentation
2) Connectives or links (on the one hand, besides, first, in my opinion, in my POV, in conclusion, to sum up)
3) Paragraphe
4) Use of imagery
5) Stylistic devices of literary fiction
Oratory & speeches.
(a spoken variety of the publicistic style).
- Commentary (tv, radio)
- Speeches of statesman
The aim of such texts is persuasion and speeches are often supported by gestures
Features:
- direct address to the audience
- pronoun “you”
- the contractions (aren’t, isn’t, he’s – orally only)
- colloquial words
- repetition, parallel structures, different types of questions, similes, metaphors, epithets
- the change of intonation
Essay.
The essay as a form starts from the end of the 16th century. An essay is a literary composition on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary subjects. But it doesn’t go deep into the subject. It is characterized by personality of the treatment of the theme and natural expression. It includes a series of personal witty comments and it is not an argument or a deep study of some matter.
Typical features:
1) Brevity of expression
2) First person singular (I)
3) Links & connectives
4) Emotive words
5) Stylistic devices
Journalistic articles.
They have quite special structure – intro, the main body, conclusion – aimed at persuasion.
Typical features: the features mentioned in the essays +
1) Bookish words
2) Neologisms
3) Explanations
4) Clichés
5) Logical argumentation
6) Emphatic constructions
Scientific prose style.
It’s aim: the aim of the scientific prose is to prove some idea, to create a new concept, to disclose laws of existence, development and relations between different phenomena and to render actual data. In general the scientific language is very precise, unemotional and generalized.
Lexical features:
1) Terms
2) The vocabulary is used mostly in its direct meaning (terms seldom develop contextual meanings).
3) Exchange of terms between different branches of science.
4) High frequency of bookish, formal words.
Grammatical peculiarities:
1) Frequent use of passive constructions, especially impersonal passive with the verbs suppose, assume, presume, conclude, point out (it should be pointed out, it must be emphasized, it can be supposed)
2) Striking predominance of compound and complex sentences. It the sentence is simple, it is very developed
3) High frequency of conjunctions, especially of the double ones (whether …or, there with, there by, there after)
4) The use of the 1st person plural (we consider, we deal with)
5) The use of FS and PrCont instead of PrS.
Stylistic features:
1) Logical argumentation
2) A system of links or connectives (finally, thus and so on)
3) Postulatory sentences
4) Quotations and references
5) Footnotes
The belles-lettres style
There are 3 sub-styles:
1) Poetry
2) Emotive prose
3) Drama
All three sub-styles carry out the aesthetic and cognitive functions which aim at the cognitive process and evoke a feeling of pleasure. The cognitive function makes it relative to the scientific prose, but the main aim of the latter is to prove sth, while the aim of the belles-lettres style is to suggest a possible interpretation of some phenomena by making the reader see the writer’s point of view.
General Features:
1) Genuine imagery achieved by linguistic devices.
2) The use of words in their contextual meanings and in more than one dictionary meanings
3) The vocabulary reflects the author’s personal evaluation of phenomena and events
4) Individual selection of the vocabulary and syntax
5) The use of colloquial language
6) Violation of literary norms
Poetry
Features:
1) An orderly form based on a certain rhythmic and phonetic arrangement of utterances
2) Syntax and semantics are restricted by the rhythmic pattern that results in brevity of expression and unexpected imagery. The brevity is achieved by elliptical and fragmentary sentences, detachment, inversion, etc.
3) Rhythm and rhyme that are achieved through alteration of stressed and unstressed syllables, equal number of syllables in the line, identity of stanza pattern, definite patterns of rhyming
4) Imagery which is rich in associations. It is decoded by the reader through analysis of the lexical meaning. Imagery is built on metaphor, metonymy and simile.
5) Emotional coloring
6) Metrical patterns (iambic meter, dactylic meter, trochaic (хорей) meter, amphibrachic, anapaestic meter)
7) Individual author’s style
Emotive prose.
1) Imagery is not as rich as in poetry. The number of words used in their contextual meaning is smaller. There is a combination of the standard language and its colloquial variant, of spoken and written varieties, of monolog and dialog.
2) Emotive prose allows the use of elements of other styles with some changes. The above mentioned general features remain in the emotive prose.
Drama.
The language of plays is entirely dialog. The author’s speech is almost excluded except for the playwright’s remarks and stage directions in brackets. The language of the characters is a mixture of the standard norm and of the colloquial language.
The language of the plays reveal general tendencies in the literary language and individual peculiarities of the playwright. Plays are aimed at hearing/ being heard, not reading, so the sentences are to be quite compact and rich in information. The sequence of sentences must reflect the sequence of thoughts.