EARLY HISTORY OF ELECTRICITY

Let us now turn our attention to the early facts, that is to say, let us see how it all started.

History shows us that at least 2,500 years ago or so, the Greeks were already familiar with the strange force (as it seemed to them) which is known today as electricity. Generally speaking, three phenomena made up all of man's knowledge of electrical effects. The first phenomenon under consideration was the familiar lightning flash —a dangerous power, as it seemed to him, which could both kill people and burn or destroy their houses. The second mani­festation of electricity he was more or less familiar with was the following: he sometimes found in the earth a strange yellow stone which looked like glass. On being rubbed, that strange yellow stone, that is to say amber, obtained the ability of attracting light objects of a small size. The third phenomenon was connected with the so-called electric fish which possessed the property of giving more or less strong electric shocks which could be obtained by a person coming into contact with the electric fish.

Nobody knew that the above phenomena were due to electricity. People could neither understand their observa­tions nor find any practical applications for them.

As a matter of fact, all of man's knowledge in the field of electricity has been obtained during the last 400 years, or so. Needless to say, it took a long time before scientists learned how to make use of electricity. In effect, most of the electrically operated devices, such as the electric lamp, the refrigerator, the tram, the lift, the radio, and so on, are less than one hundred years old. In spite of their having been employed for such a short period of time, they play a most important part in man's everyday life all over the world. In fact, we cannot do without them at present.

So far, we have not named the scientists who contribut­ed to the scientific research on electricity as centuries passed. However, famous names are connected with its his­tory and among them we find that of Phales, the Greek philosopher. As early as about 600 В. С. (that is, before our era) he discovered that when amber was rubbed, it attracted and held minute light objects. However, he could not know that amber was charged with electricity owing to the process of rubbing. Then Gilbert, the English physic­ist, began the first systematic scientific research on electri­cal phenomena. He discovered that various other substances possessed the property similar to that of amber or, in other words, they generated electricity when they were rubbed. He gave the name "electricity" to the phenomenon he was studying. He got this word from the Greek "electrum" meaning "amber".

Many learned men of Europe began to use the new word "electricity" in their conversation as they were enga­ged in research of their own. Scientists of Russia, France and Italy made their contribution as well as the English­men and the Germans.

Exercises

I. Learn the following words, groups of words and sen­tences. Translate the sentences.

1. as a matter of fact — действительно, на самом деле. As a matter of fact there is a relation between elec­tricity and magnetism.

2. at least — по крайней мере. Electrical devices were invented at least 100 years ago.

3. to come into contact — соприкасаться. It is danger­ous to come into contact with high voltage.

4. due to — благодаря, вследствие, из-за. We can watch TV due to electricity.

5. famous — известный. Famous scientists work at our institute.

6. to generate — производить, вырабатывать, генериро­вать. The first nuclear power plant generated current in 1954.

7. in spite of — несмотря на. We burn coal in spite of its being a source of chemical products.

8. knowledge — знания. Students get knowledge at the institute.

9. to mean — значить, означать. The words 'atmospher­ic electricity' and 'lightning' mean one and the same thing.

10. more or less — более или менее. All metals have more or less similar properties.

11. needless to say — нечего и говорить. Needless to say, we need more and more electrical energy.

12. research — исследование. Russian scientists contribute greatly to scientific research.

13. to take time — занимать время. Learning English words takes much time.

14. that is to say — то есть, иными словами. Nuclear fu­el, that is to say, uranium is used in reactors.

15. to turn one's attention to — обращать внимание. Gal­ileo turned his attention to the properties of mag­netic materials.

16. various — различный. Gilbert made various experi­ments on electricity and magnetism.

17. under consideration — рассматриваемый, обсуждае­мый. The instructions under consideration were written for the new installation.

 

II. Learn to recognize the following international words.

strange, history, to start, effect, shock, period, philos­opher, object, systematic

 

III. Translate the following groups of words.

famous mathematician, to generate electric energy, due to various applications, in spite of difficulties, the example under consideration

несмотря на большие достижения, известные наблю­дения, благодаря громоотводу, различные установки, на самом деле, по крайней мере, в лаборатории

IV.For the word combinations given in (a) find the English equivalents in (b).

a) 1. пока что; 2. несмотря на; 3. на самом деле; 4. благодаря; 5. то есть; 6. между прочим; 7. в резуль­тате; 8. по крайней мере; 9. вместо; 10. более или менее; 11. в свою очередь; 12. рассматриваемый

b) 1. at least; 2. as a matter of fact; 3. that is to say; 4. in one's turn; 5. in question; 6. so far; 7. instead of; 8. more or less; 9. in spite of; 10. thanks to; 11. as a result; 12. by the way

V. Fill in the blanks with the following words and expressions.

in the form of, because, because of, to be interested in, to put into operation, as for, to be named after, in question, to turn one's attention to

1. The discovery... was made by a well-known Russian scientist. 2. Moscow University... M.V. Lomonosov. 3. Frank­lin... making experiments with atmospheric electricity. 4.... the electric current, it is used both in industry and in our homes. 5. The first atomic power plant in the world... in the USSR in June 1954. 6. Professor Rihman was killed by a stroke of lightning... he did not think of possi­ble danger. 7. Atom finds a wide application... its ability of producing heat and energy. 8. The scientists of Russia... the use of nuclear power for peaceful purposes.

 

VI. 1) For the names of the countries given in (a) find the names of the nations given in (b).

a) 1. England; 2. France; 3. Russia; 4. Greece; 5. Italy; 6. Germany; 7. America

b) 1. The Italians; 2. The Greeks; 3. The Russians; 4. The Englishmen; 5. The Frenchmen; 6. The Germans; 7. The Americans

 

VII. Give short answers to the following questions.

1. Is magnetism and electricity one and the same thing? 2. Do magnets possess the property of attracting iron? 3. Do you know who discovered magnetism? 4. Was the phe­nomenon of electricity known to people in the past? 5. Did Gilbert work in the field of electricity? 6. Do you carry out experiments on lightning? 7. Is lightning a strong spark of electricity? 8. Can atomic energy be used for the good of mankind? 9. Do you know the history of electricity? 10. Was Phales a German philosopher? 11. Did you study the history of electricity? 12. Have you ever come into contact with an electric fish? 13. Can you do without electricity?

 

VIII. Define the following terms.

lightning, lightning conductor, magnetism, refrigera­tor, generator, motor, turbine

 

IX. Speak on:

1. Three electrical phenomena known to the people of the past.

2. Everyday use of electricity.

 

X. Make up the annotation of the text and retell it.

 

 

LESSON EIGHT

Read and translate the text.

HISTORY OF THERMOMETERS

Placing a kettle full of cold water on the fire is quite an ordinary thing. This time we shall do it to carry out a simple experiment. Placing a finger into the kettle from time to time, we find that the water is gradually becoming hotter and hotter, until it boils at last. In scientific lan­guage we describe this phenomenon by saying that the tem­perature of the water is rising.

However, we need some more exact means of measuring the difference of temperature than our finger. In effect, the finger can give us neither exact information, nor nu­merical data.

As a matter of fact, the very first step in the develop­ment of heat engineering made it necessary to find a de­vice for indicating temperature and for measuring its changes. As it is well known, the thermometer is the very instrument that serves this purpose.

As early as 1602, Galileo invented an air thermometer. It consisted of a glass bulb containing air and connected to a glass tube, the latter being immersed into a coloured liquid. Galileo's air thermometer was sensitive not only to temperature changes but also to changes of atmospheric pressure.

The type of thermometer familiar to everyone at pre­sent was first put into general use as early as 1654. Making the first measuring instruments was not an easy thing at all. Needless to say, the most difficult problem of all was that of marking the degrees on the thermometer, in other words, of graduating the scale. It was decided, at last, to take two fixed points and to divide the interval between them into small equal parts or degrees. And then, in 1701, Isaak Newton, the famous English scientist, whose name is

known all over the world, constructed a scale in which the freezing point of water was taken as zero and the temperature of the human body as 12°.

Some time later the German physicist Fahren­heit proved that the temperature of boiling water was always the same at the same atmospheric pressure. It might therefore be used as a second fixed point instead of the temperature of the human body. As for the liq­uid used, it was mercury which has been mostly em­ployed since that time.

On the Fahrenheit scale the boiling point of water is taken as 212° and the freezing point as 32°, the interval being divided into 180 equal parts. The scale under consideration is indi­cated by writing the letter F after the temperature, as for example, 212°F. This scale is mainly used in English speaking countries.

On the Centigrade scale the freezing point of water is marked 0°C and the boiling point is marked 100°C, the let­ter С indicating this scale. This temperature scale is em­ployed in Russia as well as in most other countries of the world.

 

Exercises

I. Learn the following words, groups of words. Translate the sentences.

1. body — тело. It is very important to know the quan­tity of energy present in a body.

2. to boil — кипеть. We boil water to produce steam.

3. boiling point — точка кипения. The boiling point of water depends on atmospheric pressure.

4. degree — градус; степень. Steel melts at 1300 de­grees.

5. data — данные. These data were used in research work.

6. difference — разность, разница. What is the differ­ence between potential and kinetic energy?

7. freezing point — точка замерзания. What is the freez­ing point of water?

8. to indicate — показывать, указывать. The capacity of the generator is indicated in the instruction.

9. the latter — последний из упомянутых. Coal and ura­nium are fuels; the latter is used in nuclear reactors.

10. liquid — жидкость. At what temperature does this liquid boil?

11. means — средство. A lightning conductor is a means of protecting houses from lightning.

12. mercury — ртуть. Mercury is a metal.

13. pressure — давление. What is the atmospheric pres­sure today?

14. purpose — цель, намерение. What is the purpose of this laboratory work?

15. to put into use — вводить в действие, запускать. A new reactor was put into use.

16. to rise — подниматься, возрастать. When the body is heated its temperature rises.

 

II. Translate the following groups of words.

high pressure, temperature difference, freezing point of water, scientific data, to indicate degrees, useful means

указывать давление, точка кипения, последний из упомянутых, ввести станцию в действие, кипятить воду, жидкое топливо

 

III. Fill in the blanks with suitable words and word combinations given below.

1.A thermometer is employed for... temperature and for... its changes. 2. The glass tube was immersed into a... liquid. 3. As early as 1602 Galileo invented an.... 4. The... scale is employed in Russia. 5.... looks like a yellow stone. 6. The Fahrenheit scale is mainly used in.... 7. Galileo's air thermometer was sensitive to.... 8. The scientists worked out the plan of their... research.

coloured, Centigrade, amber, measuring, English speak­ing countries, air thermometer, indicating, changes of atmospheric pressure, scientific

 

IV. 1) For the verbs in (a) find suitable nouns in (b).

a).1. to carry out; 2. to put into; 3. to contribute to; 4. to solve; 5. to deliver; 6. to take part in; 7. to go

b) 1. research; 2. a problem; 3. on foot; 4. an experi­ment; 5. operation; 6. science; 7. a lecture

2) For the nouns in (a) find suitable attributes in (b).

a) 1. famous; 2. boiling; 3. glass; 4. cold; 5. scientif­ic; 6. electrical; 7. mercury

b) 1. water; 2. problem; 3. thermometer; 4. device; 5. bulb; 6. scientist; 7. point

 

V. 1) Translate the following word combinations.

temperature scale, lightning conductor, freezing point, human body, German speaking countries, measuring in­strument, temperature difference, boiling point, atmospher­ic pressure, numerical data, mercury thermometer, elec­trical device

2) Use these word combinations in sentences of your own.

 

VI. Give synonyms for the following words.

to use, big, learned man, owing to, instrument, various

 

VII. Translate the following sentences paying special attention to the words in bold type.

1. You are the only engineer who speaks both English and German. 2. This is the only book by I.S. Turgenev that I haven't read. 3. All countries should use nuclear power for peaceful purposes only. 4. This phenomenon was studied first by Sokolov and then by Novikov. 5. Novikov's re­sult was certainly better than that of his friend. 6. Ga­lileo constructed an air thermometer, some years later a French scientist constructed another one, in which water was used instead of air. 7. Both M.V. Lomonosov and G. W. Rikhman studied atmospheric electricity, the latter being Lomonosov's friend. 8. There are 26 letters in the English language. 9. The last letter of the English alphabet is "z". 10. Some students work and study at the same time. 11. This engineer carried on some experiments on the properties of semiconductors.

 

VIII. Find the wrong statements and correct them.

1. We can do without the thermometer when we need exact data on the temperature of the body. 2. The thermom­eter is the very instrument for protecting buildings from thunderstorms. 3. As early as 1602 Galileo invented the Centigrade scale. 4. An air thermometer consisted of a metal bulb containing mercury and connected to a glass tube. 5. The glass tube in the air thermometer was immersed into water. 6. Water is the very liquid that is used in ther­mometers. 7. The Fahrenheit scale is widely employed all over the world. 8. Water temperature falls when a kettle is put on the fire. 9. Mercury is not used in thermometers at present.

 

IX. Answer the following questions.

1. What is this text about? 2. What do you do if you want to boil water? 3. What is the temperature of boil­ing water? 4. What instrument is used for measuring temperature? 5. What did Galileo invent? 6. What do you know about the air thermometer? 7. What is the difference between the Fahrenheit and the Centigrade scales? 8. What instrument measures the temperature of hot metals? 9. What is the difference between the mercury thermometer and the pyrometer? 10. When does water freeze?

 

X. Make up the annotation of the text and retell it.

 

LESSON NINE

Read and translate the text.

 

LOMONOSOV

The great Russian scientist, outstanding poet and enlightener, M.V. Lomonosov, was born in the village of Denisovka (now Lomonosovo), far off in the North, on November 19, 1711. He was very young when he easily mastered reading and writing. The boy longed for knowledge, he longed to master science. That longing was so great that at the age of 19 he left his father's home and started on foot for Moscow in spite of the long distance and the cold winter.

He experienced great want and countless hardships during his student years both in Moscow and later on in Germany where he had been sent to complete his education. Studying at the academy, he got only 3 copecks a day, that scholarship being his only means of living.

He mastered natural science as well as history, philoso­phy and engineering. In addition to the Russian language, he had a good knowledge of foreign languages, namely German, French, Greek and, last but not least, Latin which was the international language of science at that time. At the age of 35 M.V. Lomonosov was already an experienced professor and an academician.

It is quite impossible to name a scientific problem he did not turn his attention to. Nevertheless, theory alone left him dissatisfied. He knew by experience that it was useless and unreliable if it did not find practical applica­tion and could not, therefore, serve the good of his people and his country. He always tried to find practical applica­tion for the phenomena studied.

M.V. Lomonosov possessed an unusual capacity for work. He carried out an extraordinary amount of useful, educational work in various fields of scientific and cultur­al life. He carried on scientific research in natural science and made numerous reports on the results of his achieve­ments. He lectured to students and translated the works of various foreign scientists into Russian for he 'wanted to educate "our own Newtons". For this very purpose he founded Moscow University and wrote his odes as well as numerous books on the Russian language and literature, on physics and so on.

For many years the great scientist carried on systematic experimental laboratory work both in physics and chemistry for, according to his opinion, without observation and experi­ment there could be no progress in science. In this connec­tion, one might ask: "Do you know that Lomonosov or­ganized the first chemical laboratory in our country?" One more question: "Who built the first glass-making fac­tory in Russia?" It was Lomonosov, of course!

As a materialist, M.V. Lomonosov studied physical properties of bodies on the basis of the molecular and atomic theory. He developed the kinetic theory of gases, the molecular kinetic theory of heat and first discovered the law of conser­vation of matter and momentum. He also found that light, heat and electricity are different forms of motion. As a result, many of his discoveries became invaluable contri­bution to world science.

From the very first and to the last days of his life he struggled alone for Russian science and the enlightenment ofthe Russian people.

 

Exercises

I. Learn the following words, groups of words. Translate the sentences.

1. amount — количество. A large amount of work was done by the students in summer.

2. at a result — в результате. The discovery was made as a result of a long research work.

3. chemistry — химия. Chemistry is my favorite sub­ject.

4. to experience — испытывать; претерпевать. M.V. Lomonosov experienced great difficulties when he was a stu­dent.

5. heat — тепло, теплота. Heat is a form of energy.

6. in addition to — вдобавок, в дополнение. Electricity is used in every home in addition to its industrial ap­plications.

7. to last — длиться, продолжаться. How long will the lecture last?

8. law — закон, право. What laws did Newton discover?

9. light — свет; светлый. This lamp gives little light.

10. matter —вещество, материя. What kind of matter is used in your experiment?

11. motion — движение. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

12. natural — естественный. Natural sciences are studied at the university.

13. nevertheless — тем не менее. Lightning conductor is an old invention; nevertheless it is used at present.

14. numerous ^:—многочисленный. Gilbert made numer­ous experiments on magnetic materials.

15. on the basis of — на основе. Galileo studied magnetic materials on the basis of Gilbert's achievements.

16. physics — физика. Do you study physics?

17. theory — теория. Franklin developed a new theory of electricity.

 

II. Learn to recognize the following international words.

poet, academy, professor, academician, international, activity, cultural, university, literature, chemistry, ma­terialist, gas

 

III. Translate the following words paying attention to the suffixes and prefixes.

countless, distance, education, scholarship, impossi­ble, to dissatisfy, observation, materialist, physical, un­usual, extraordinary, conservation, invaluable, enlightener, possibility, to occupy, sunny, useful, discovery

 

IV. Translate the following groups of words.

in addition to theory, as a result of discovery, natural mistake, physics law, electric light, on the basis of motion

большое количество, длиться два дня, тем не менее, изучать теплоту, многочисленные достижения, новая теория

 

V. For the words given in (a) find suitable prefixes in (b).

a) 1. natural; 2. to organize; 3. possible; 4. to satis­fy; 5. ordinary; 6. valuable; 7. large; 8. to cover; 9. to write; 10. to charge; 11. usual

b) 1. re; 2. in; 3. im; 4. un; 5. dis; 6. extra; 7. super; 8. en

 

VI. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the words in bold type.

1. I like to read but I have very little time for reading. 2. My friend speaks of nothing else but his examinations. 3. As for the power spent in producing lightning flashes it is but 1/10,000 of the power got by mankind from the sun. 4. The Fahrenheit scale is used in England, but it is not used in Russia. 5. We know that a thermom­eter is used for measuring temperature differences. 6. I was sent for the doctor. 7. These students studied English for 2 years. 8. Russian scientists and inventors work for this country. 9. Our professor left for Leningrad for he is going to work there for 3 weeks. 10. It is necessary for me to be at home at 6 o'clock. 11. The scientist was observ­ing a new phenomenon for a long time. 12. We need much electricity for it is used both in our homes and in industry.

 

VII. Give as many nouns as possible with the following suffixes.

-or, -er, -ist, -ship, -tion, -ment, -ness

 

VIII. For the adjectives given in (a) find suitable nouns in (b).

a) 1. natural; 2. famous; 3. electric; 4. useful; 5. long; 6. cold; 7. foreign; 8. scientific; 9. industrial; 10. molec­ular; 11. dark; 12. physical

b) 1. way; 2. language; 3. application; 4. property; 5. theory; 6. furnace; 7. sciences; 8. cloud; 9. work; 10. activity; 11. winter; 12. scientist

 

IX. Form sentences using the nouns qualified by adjectives given in Ex. VIII.

Model: M.V. Lomonosov studied natural sciences.

 

X. Form questions for the following answers.

1. In the village of Denisovka. 2. on November 19, 1711. 3. At the age of 19. 4. Yes, I do. 5. No, he did not. 6. At the age of 35. 7. On the basis of molecular and atomic theo­ry. 8. He discovered the law of conservation of matter and momentum.

 

XI. Answer the following questions.

1. Was M.V. Lomonosov born in Russia? 2. In what year was he born? 3. What did he long for? 4. Why did he leave his father's home? 5. Did he complete his education in America? 6. What subjects did he master? 7. What foreign languages did he know? 8. Did M.V. Lomonosov deliver lectures to students? 9. For what purpose did he found Moscow University? 10. Who organized the first chemical laboratory in our coun­try? 11. What theories did M.V. Lomonosov develop?

 

XII. Make up the annotation of the text and retell it.

 

LESSON TEN

Read and translate the text.