What makes a good science communicator?

Scientists write, among other things, to inform the public, to persuade government and industry to fund research, and to communicate results, innovations and discoveries to fellow academics, industry, and public audiences. Whatever the form of communication used – oral presentation, report, academic paper, website or news item – the good Science writer:

• thinks objectively and thoroughly;

• researches carefully;

• keeps good records and notes;

• writes clearly, concisely and accurately;

• considers the background of the audience;

• uses the appropriate format for the type of writing involved;

• presents the material neatly;

• takes care to acknowledge all sources of information.

TEXT 3

Exercise 1. For most academic essays, you are expected to use a formal writing style. Read the text below and learn about the DOs and DON'Ts of this style so that you can edit your work effectively.

Modern academic writing has a formal (academic) style. But, what does
it mean? Sometimes, students think that a formal (academic) style means that they have to copy their lecturer's writing style or that of the books and journals that they read. This may result in writing that is stilted and unclear. Academic writers develop their style after years of practice and students will take time to learn this style.

What TO DO

Objective writing

Academic writing is objective (i. e. factual, impersonal, unemotional, logical and precise). You should deal with facts in an impersonal way, without distortion by personal feelings or prejudices. While you are expected to develop your own ideas from your research and reading about a topic, you must express those ideas in an impersonal objective manner. An objective tone in your writing is achieved by:

· using third person rather than first or second person (i. e. avoid using
I, we, you);

· using standard English (avoid clichés and slang);

· using academically sound sources of information to back up your arguments.

Clarity

Clarity in your writing ensures that the person who is reading (marking) your work can understand what you are saying. Do not assume that your reader will understand what you are trying to say – try to write so that another person will grasp your ideas. The opposite of clear writing is muddled text that has to be deciphered by the reader. Following are a few tips to help you to write clearly:

· write a plan to organize your writing before you start;

· write academic paragraphs correctly;

· write shorter sentences (no longer than a couple of lines);

· punctuate correctly (poor punctuation affects clarity);

· edit your writing for meaning;

· use the technical vocabulary of your subject area.

Technical or science vocabulary

Every subject you study will have some specialized vocabulary that should be used when you are writing about that subject. Most text books have
a glossary of terms (or use discipline specific dictionaries) with explanations
so that you can use these terms correctly. If you use these words fluently in your essay, it shows your marker that you are mastering your subject.

Standard English

This is English used by the general community (e. g. business, government, schools) rather than local English (e. g. colloquial, slang) variations.

Correct English

You will lose marks for incorrect sentences, spelling and punctuation,
so always proofread your work. Use a good dictionary and invest in a writer's guide if you are unsure about the rules of English.

Non-discriminatory language

This is language that avoids offending groups of people (e. g. racial, ethnic, religious, age, sexual).

What NOT TO DO

There is much to learn from what is NOT wanted. Following are some of the small but specific mistakes in style that are made (mainly unconsciously)
in formal written work.

· Do not use colloquial language or slang.

· Do not use shortened forms of words and phrases incorrectly.

· Avoid using personal language.

· Avoid using language that is emotional.

· Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly.

· Avoid using unnecessary words.

· Avoid using brackets and dashes to add information.

· Do not use dot / bullet point lists unless you are instructed to.

· Do not shift verb tense unnecessarily.

· Do not use exclamation marks (!) in your essay.

· Do not use questions and commands.

· Do not misuse font and font styles (mainly italics & underlining).

Exercise 2. Study these paragraphs and select the correct comment about the style.

1. I think that essay writing is an important skill for all of us students. Don't you see how many marks are given for this? Lots of students agree that they are marooned if they can't write a decent essay. In my opinion (as a struggling student), we should have lessons in essay writing from day one!!!

a) Formal, straightforward, clearly written, correct academic style.

b) Informal, like spoken (colloquial) language, incorrect academic style.

c) Too formal, uses too many words, incorrect academic style.

2. It is in fact correct to say that academic essay writing is of utmost importance in the attainment of a university degree. A high proportion of marks are allocated to the compilation of essay assignments as part of a university course to the point where it could be the causation of terminating a degree programme because of failure. There is somewhat of an obligation for universities in the provision of services to the student population to educate their students in the intricacies of essay writing early in their undergraduate first year.

a) Formal, straightforward, clearly written, correct academic style.

b) Informal, like spoken (colloquial) language, incorrect academic style.

c) Too formal, uses too many words, incorrect academic style.

3. Essay writing is an important skill for tertiary students. Academic essays can attract a considerable proportion of assessment marks in most degree programmes. Therefore, students may require a firm grounding in academic essay writing skills at the start of their first year to assist them to succeed in their university studies.

a) Formal, straightforward, clearly written, correct academic style.

b) Informal, like spoken (colloquial) language, incorrect academic style.

c) Too formal, uses too many words, incorrect academic style.

Exercise 3. You are well aware of the fact that academic assignments usually follow a particular style. Here are some tips for better academic writing that you are supposed to classify and then match to the guidelines listed below.

a) Use formal language

b) Use impersonal language

c) Be tentative

d) Be precise and specific

e) Use powerful reporting words

1. Very little in the world is clearly either right or wrong, all or nothing. Beliefs we may have held at one time may be challenged. Most research cannot cover every case of an event or phenomenon so most theories are open to modification. Academics, therefore, are cautious in the way they present their findings. And so should you be in your assignments. Use words or phrases such as:

• suggests that;

• there is a tendency for;

• it would seem that, etc.

2. It's important to be clear about what you are saying and to be able to use the specific terminology of your subject or discipline. You can't assume that a reader will simply know what you mean. When you really know your subject you should be able to explain the main terms and articulate the main ideas to someone who hasn't studied in your area. You could:

• keep your own glossary (list) of subject at the back of a folder;

• develop a list of "power" words, ones that say a lot very succinctly;

• get other people to read your work;

• become a ruthless editor, cutting out as much dead-wood as possible;

• use specific examples to illustrate your points rather than just talk generally;

• use a good dictionary – not a pocket one;

• use a subject-specific dictionary.

3. Writing a university assignment is quite different from having a casual chat with friends. You are expected to use a more formal type of language. This may mean changing habits you have developed and allowing plenty of time to revise your style after you have finished the main content. You need to:

• avoid slang;

• use full forms rather than abbreviations;

• consider the use of nominalization (making noun structures) rather than wordy verb structures.

4. When you include other people's research you can pack in extra meaning by using a more precise reporting word. Useful reporting words include:

describe, contend, examine, state, disagree, observe, assert, support, claim, dispute, suggest, purport, persuade, dismiss, refute, propose, concur, recommend, object, contradict, etc.

5. In some subject areas you are expected to avoid the pronoun "I". However, you are often asked to make judgments and include your own views on an issue. In fact, whatever is included in your essay that is not attributed to someone else (i. e. Jones (1987) demonstrates that..., according to Smith (1994)…, etc.) is assumed to be yours. At the same time too much nominalization can make your writing unnecessarily complex and tedious to read.

• report another person's view;

• strike a balance in nominalization.

Exercise 4. Scan the text and find out the specific information.

1. how to introduce the features of academic writing style;

2. how to describe ways of making writing more formal and technical;

3. how to make academic writing more impersonal and objective.

Exercise 5. Replace the contractions in the following sentences with full forms where necessary.

1. The results weren't very encouraging.

2. We'll have to conduct another experiment.

3. She's been all around the world.

4. It's the best solution to the problem.

5. Our questionnaire shows that teachers aren't paid what they're worth.

6. His response was, "A job's a job; if it doesn't pay enough, it's a lousy job".

7. He'd rather announce the findings at the conference.

8. The department's approach didn't succeed.

Exercise 6. Suggest improvements to the following sentences to avoid use of "you" and "we".

1. You can apply the same theory of learning to small children.

2. You can only do this after the initial preparation has been conducted.

3. The figures are accurate to within 1 %, but you should note that local variations may apply.

4. In the second section of the report, we will consider the environmental consequences.

Exercise 7. Suggest alternatives to the following to avoid use of personal language.

1. In this essay I will discuss the main differences between the English and Scottish legal systems.

2. I have divided my report into five sections.

3. I will conclude by proposing that all drugs should be legalized.

4. The opinion of the present author in this essay is that the importance of
the monarchy should be reduced.

5. In the third part of the essay, we will look at the reasons for public hysteria over the SARS virus.

6. Although I am not an expert in the field, I have tried very hard to understand the main ideas.

Exercise 8. Rewrite the following text using an impersonal style of writing.

I want to argue that all children in Australia have the right to be educated in their mother tongue. I expect that many children in the past spent months or years in school but did not understand the lessons. I am convinced that many migrant children are failing in our education system because we do not have bilingual education programmes. If we look at the U.N. report on language and education, we can discover that children who become literate in their own language have the greatest chance of educational success. People have been discussing the latest figures on university entrance recently and you can tell that migrant children do less well than "Anglo" children at present. I suspect that
this is because they have difficulty with English and I would claim that
the government has done too little to help these children. Surely the best way to achieve this in Australia is for the State governments to set up bilingual education programmes for all migrant children. I would suggest that this is
the number one important issue for multicultural Australia.

Exercise 9. Complete the table choosing from the following examples which are more like spoken English and which are more academic. Explain your choice.

	Informal	Formal

…

1. a) Comprehension is aided by repetition.

b) You can understand something better if it is repeated.

2. a) Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned.

b) The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police.

3.a) Jacob (1998) concedes that the test is not 100 % reliable.

b) Jacob says that the test is not 100 % reliable.

4. a) I think that all guns should be banned.

b) There is a case for stricter government control on guns.

5. a) an idea that not everyone agrees with;

b) a controversial idea.

6. "In Plath's poetry the personal concerns and everyday role are transmuted into something impersonal, by being absorbed into a timeless mythic system".

7. "Aboriginal Australians are not only put in jail more than white Australians, they have a worrying rate of deaths in custody".

8. "People driving their cars everywhere and a general reliance on polluting substances is definitely why we have global warming, according to scientists".

9. "Sylvia Plath's poetry feels like she's telling you everything about herself, but by using mythical characters she distances herself from her confessions".

10. "The prevailing scientific opinion on global warming is that most of
the climate change observed in the last 50 years is due to human activities".

Exercise 10. Transform the sentences making them less informal and more academic in writing.

1. In my opinion, Chile has the worst human rights records in the world.

2. Now I am going to present the advantages and disadvantages of...

3. It seems to me that there are three main advantages of...

4. In my view there are some benefits to be gained from...

5. Children who use drugs are often left out in the dark.

6. They were bewildered by the results.

7. Organ transplantation is just not effective.

8. Patients should not be treated like this at all.

9. Globalisation can only lead to the downfall of mankind.

10. There are different kinds of business, private, public, non-profit...

11. The positive feedback made up for the problems we came across during
the trials.

12. You can clearly see the differences between these two learning processes.

13. The subjects didn't have much difficulty with the task.

14. We found example after example of autonomous systems in lots of countries.

Exercise 11. Put a cross if you think there is a mistake in the sentence. Alternatively, put a tick next to the sentences below that you think are correct.

1. In view of the above statement, it is pertinent to mention here that trade is basically necessity for every country.

2. As we know that trade liberalization refers to dismantling of tariff and
non-tariff barriers.

3. Through my point of view, the "American dream" is a hard-working person who earns much money, has a beautiful house, a happy, healthy family and gains respect from his friends.

4. Studies have shown that a manager's culture strongly influences his/her attitude and behaviour (Mason and Spich, 1987).

5. In this essay, I will describe the Internet's power, advantages and disadvantages in relation to the global marketplace.

6. For example, through information obtained from the internet, companies can know about their competitors directly.

7. Beyond the question what is eaten, driven in all over the world, ıt would also seem that we are moving toward a single worldview.

8. It is our duty as individuals to ensure that food is not wasted and that donations are always made to those in need.

9. The government should really get a closer look at this situation.

10. Nowadays, there is a well-developed financial system, well-developed information and a well city planning over the world.

11. Firstly, I will demonstrate the drastic situation of famine and hunger in
the world and will provide the supporting evidence how people are suffering starvation.

12. Firstly, there is another problem that causing in the world, which is climate change.

Exercise 12. Rewrite these sentences using a more formal, academic style.

1. Dr. L. does small surgery in his rooms and in emergencies he sews up wounds too.

2. It is important to get rid of impurities so a lot of effort has gone into figuring out the best method of refinement.

3. How can immigrants get equal treatment and a fair go? Discrimination isn't just in the workplace but is part and parcel of everyday life too.

4. A big problem with Rogers' counseling method is the length of time
the therapy takes.

5. Television is reassuring because people can just sit there really safe and secure while watching dramatic and exciting shows.

Exercise 13. Summarize what you have learnt about writing in academic style and speak about its features.

TEXT 4

Exercise 1. Read the academic essay below. The following five paragraph essay has paragraph labels to show the parts of an academic essay.

Introduction

Assignment essays are developed from set questions that give students a period of time to research a topic and produce their answer with references to their sources of information. While there are some disadvantages with using assignment essays as an assessment tool, there are sound educational purposes underpinning this practice. This essay examines the reasons why assignment essays are beneficial for student learning and considers some of the problems with this method of assessment.

Body paragraph 1

Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of their study subject. Firstly, assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter. Yang and Baker (2005) reason that "to master your learning materials and extend your understandings, you need to write about the meanings you gain from your research" (p. 1). Secondly, research (Jinx, 2004; Zapper, 2006) clearly demonstrates that students learn the writing conventions of a subject area while they are researching, reading and writing in their discipline. This activity helps them to "crack the code" of the discipline (Bloggs, 2003, p. 44). Thus, students are learning subject matter and how to write in that disciplinary area by researching and writing assignment essays.

Body paragraph 2

Using assignment essays for assessment supports student learning better than the traditional examination system. It is considered that course-work assignment essays can lessen the extreme stress experienced by some students over "sudden-death" end of semester examinations:

If we insist that all students write about everything they have learned in their study courses at the same time and in the same place (e. g. in examinations), we are not giving all of our students equal opportunities. Some students are not daunted by the exam experience while others suffer "exam nerves" and perform at the lowest level of their capabilities (Wonderland University, 2006, p. 4).

Additionally, Jones et al. (2004, pp. 36–37) propose that assignment essays can be used to assess student learning mid-course and so provide them with helpful feedback before they are subjected to the exam experience. Exams only provide students with a mark rather than specific feedback on their progress. Therefore, setting assignment essays for a substantial part of student assessment is a much fairer approach than one-off examination testing.

Body paragraph 3

As an assessment tool, assignment essays have some disadvantages for lecturers and students. It has been found that assignment essays consume a great deal of staff time and money to mark and student time to prepare (Sankey & Liger, 2005, p. 192). A consequence of this is that feedback to students is frequently delayed, and this is much less useful to students than rapid feedback (p. 294). It is partly because of these disadvantages of time and expense that other assessments such as multiple-choice tests and short answer questions have an enduring place in the tertiary learning environment.

Conclusion

To conclude, it seems that assignment essays continue to have a prominent role in tertiary education as an assessment tool. This is mainly because they are very effective in developing knowledge and writing skills for subject areas. Also, assignment essays can be less stressful than examinations as they allow students to show their understanding of content in less pressured circumstances. On the other hand, the time consuming nature of writing and marking essays points to some disadvantages that also need to be considered. The weight of evidence, however, supports the writing of assignment essays for student assessment because this approach has such positive and proven effects for improved student learning.

References

Bloggs, J. (2003). Linking teaching, learning and succeeding in higher education. London: Bookworld.

Jinx, J. M. (2004). Student essay writing. Journal of Research in University Education, 9 (2), 114–125.

Jones, J., Smith P. L., Brown K., Zong J., Thompson K. & Fung P. A. (2004). Helpline: Essays and the university student. Tokyo: Courtyard Printers.

Sankey, J. M. & Liger T. U. (2003). Learning to write essays [CD-ROM]. Sydney: Wonderland University.

Taylor, G. (1989). The student's writing guide for the arts and social sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wonderland University (2006). Attributes of a university graduate. Retrieved from doi:10.1098/063-112.

Yang, S. & Baker O. E. (2005). Essay writing and the tertiary student. Melbourne: Diamond Press.

Zapper, Y. (2006). Learning essay-writing. In F. T. Fax & Y. Phoney (Eds.), Learning Experiences at University (pp. 55–70). Calcutta: Academic Scholar Press.

Exercise 2. Discuss why assignment essays are common assessment tasks in undergraduate coursework, and evaluate the effectiveness of assignments as an avenue for learning.

Exercise 3. Complete the test. What did you notice? (The following questions relate to the essay above.)

1. The introduction paragraph

a) There is information in quotation marks.

b) There is an indented long quote in this paragraph.