Bokserov Nikita Igorevich
Saint Petersburg State University, Faculty of International Relations,
Specialty: «International Relations (in English) » (Master’s degree, 2nd year)
Round-table session "Public diplomacy: the effectiveness of models and strategies"
Academic Adviser: J.V. Nikolaeva, PhD (Historical Sciences), Professor
Sport Diplomacy as Public Diplomacy Element
Diplomacy is a way of interaction between states in which they seek to influence each other's national interests without resorting to military force. The main function of diplomacy is to resolve disputed issues by peaceful means through negotiations and agreements.
In the twentieth century public diplomacy, or so called people-to-people diplomacy, became widespread. Its main distinction reflected a change in the approach of states to the way they influence the population of other countries. Public diplomacy includes aspects of international relations that go beyond its traditional sphere - the diplomacy of public organizations, informal groups and individuals representing various spheres of public life, such as culture, art and sports. However, traditional diplomacy and public diplomacy have a common goal: the peaceful settlement of international disputes and international cooperation. The versatility of the concept of "public" implies different spheres of diplomatic activity. One of these spheres is sports and, by extension, sports diplomacy, which today is an essential part of public diplomacy.
Sports diplomacy represents the official and unofficial activities of states, governments and special foreign policy agencies, aimed at implementing the foreign policy objectives of a state by organizing, conducting and participating in international sporting events. Such type of diplomacy uses the capabilities of athletes, sports officials and sports competitions to create an attractive image of their country to the foreign public and organizations. The scope of participants in sports diplomacy is unusually wide: these are states, government agencies in the field of sport, international and national sports associations, athletes, coaches, sports professionals, the media, fan movements and etc.
Several factors have contributed to the emergence of sports diplomacy in its current state. Firstly, the transformation of the system of international relations has increased the role of nonstate actors - nongovernmental organizations, transnational corporations and personalities. Secondly, sport represents a global phenomenon that affects millions of people around the world in one way or another. Thirdly, the convergence of sports and diplomacy comes from the transformation of states' strategies in the pursuit of foreign policy goals. Fourthly, sport has an incredible ability to bring people together, regardless of their background, education, religious views or economic status. Fifth, nowadays sports and diplomacy are converging in terms of their capacity to represent states. As British historian Eric Hobsbawm once said: "The imaginary community of millions seems more real as a team of eleven named men".
Nowadays, sport is becoming one of the most important aspects of human life. Since the second half of the twentieth century sports diplomacy has become a part of international relations. Consequently, in the postwar years sport was a powerful instrument of peacekeeping activities and a way of international communication in the context of the Cold War. For example, the Soviet Union was an active organizer of various large-scale competitions and youth sports festivals, where sports events were considered an example of peaceful coexistence of peoples from different countries and with different political systems. Besides, a widely known case of establishment of diplomatic relations between China and the United States needs to be mentioned also, which went down in history as the "diplomacy of ping-pong". The series of ping-pong matches of the 1970s has given the impulse to formalize the relations between the countries. Another case took place in 1987, when Pakistani President General Zia ul-Haq attended a test match between India and Pakistan in Jaipur, showing goodwill from his side and achieving a first step towards appeasement between both countries.
However, it is necessary to indicate the critical position that emphasizes the negative role of sports diplomacy. The main accusation against the combination of the two categories is the violation of the concept of "Sport beyond politics," which formed the basis of the Olympic Charter. According to the English academic Lincoln Allison, the attempt of diplomats to use sport to achieve their goals undermines the "immutability" of its ideals. In addition, the mixing of sport and politics tends to be driven by the pursuit of selfish interests of countries that are not beneficial to world peace at all. Historically, the latter has been associated with the act of using sports for political manifestations via boycotting, athlete’s isolation or propaganda. The most famous cases of the first type are those that took place during the Cold War - the U.S. boycott of the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow and the exact same actions of the USSR in relation to the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles. The most striking example of sports isolation was the situation in South Africa in the 1960s and 1970s, when its athletes were excluded from any international competition. The latter type may well include the actions of the German Nazis and Italian Fascists, who used international sports competitions to promote the domination of their new political systems and ideologies.
To summarize, it is important to understand that sports diplomacy was in the focus of researchers for a short time. Nevertheless, it has acquired a definition in recent years and has become a full-fledged academic term within the framework of an extensive topic of public diplomacy. Today a sport is an important factor in public diplomacy, contributing to the strengthening of society and the formation of an attractive political image in the international arena.
Reference
1. Боголюбова, Н. М. Межкультурная коммуникация в 2 ч. Часть 2: учебник для академического бакалавриата / Н. М. Боголюбова, Ю. В. Николаева. — Москва: Издательство Юрайт, 2018. — 263 с.
2. Боголюбова Н. М., Николаева Ю. В. Красный спортивный интернационал и зарождение советской спортивной дипломатии // КиберЛенинка. URL: https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/krasnyy-sportivnyy-internatsional-i-zarozhdenie-sovetskoy-sportivnoy-diplomatii. -14.06.2012
3. Долгополов Н. Запрещенные приемы // Российская газета. URL: https://www.bbc.com/russian/sport/2011/03/110328_cricket_diplomacy_pakistan. -28.03.2011
4. Мартыненко, С.Е. Роль спортивной дипломатии в международных отношениях и внешней политике: дисс. … канд. ист. наук. РУДН, Москва, 2015
5. Поможет ли Индии и Пакистану "крикетная дипломатия?" // BBC News Русская служба. URL: https://sportrg.ru/2021/01/27/nikolaj-dolgopolov-politika-lezet-v-sport-narushaia-principy-olimpijskoj-hartii.html. -27.01.2021
6. Allison L. The Changing Politics of Sport. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993. – 226 p.
7. Diplomacy // Encyclopedia Britannica. URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/diplomacy
8. Hobsbawm E. Nations and nationalism since 1780: programme, myth, reality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. – 206 p.
9. Kobierecki M. In sport, Politicians Can Go Much Further Than In The World Of Politics: An interview about Sport Diplomacy // The Warsaw Institute Review. URL: https://warsawinstitute.review/news-en/in-sport-politicians-can-go-much-further-than-in-the-world-of-politics-an-interview-about-sports-diplomacy/ -04.06.2020.
10. Krajnc K. Public diplomacy: basic concepts and trends // Ifimes. URL: https://www.ifimes.org/en/researches/public-diplomacy-basic-concepts-and-trends/2995. -2005
11. Sanders B. Sport as public diplomacy // USC Center on Public Diplomacy. URL: https://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/blog/sport-public-diplomacy. -31.08.2011