I. Extra-linguistic causes of SCh.
Historical.
Due to his causes SCh may happen with the appearance of the new concept.
Ex: 1) core – роговая оболочка с семенами, сердцевина яблока, груши и т.д.)
The new meaning is that this is a scientific term – жилакабеля.
This SCg has happened because of the progress in technic.
2) screen (of the fireplace) developed a new function and got a new meaning – a screen of TV, laptop and etc.
SCh may be connected with the change of a concept of the existing things.
Ex: 1) before the 19th century the idea of some small thing was rendered by the word “atom”
маленькаядевочка – an atom of a girl
atom – elementary partical.
2) hospis is a place where deathly ill people come and a house of rest for travelers especially one kept for religious view.
Social cause of SCh.
The word acquires the meaning due to its use by a particular social group.
Ex: In the past “ a live wire” meant “ one carrying electric current”, now it’s “a person of intense energy”,
In the past “ a feed-back” meant ‘‘the return of a sample of the output of a system’’ now it’s a ‘response’
Slang
1) bread = money, dough – money
2) gas = a delightful thing
Funky – smth exciting, cool.
Psycological causes of SCh
We use special neutral words for the sake of political correctness.
Ex: invalid – disable, differently abled, physically challenged.
unemployed – redundant
СМ ЛЕКЦИЮ
II Purely linguistic causes of SCh
Differentiation of synonyms.
Differentiation of synonyms is a gradual change in the word meaning in the process of its historical development under the influence of other words originally having the same meaning.
Ex: Thus the original meaning of the word “foe” was superseded by “enemy” to the sphere of politic words.
autumn – harvest
valley – dale
country – land
people – folk
2) Ellipsis is the omission of two words habitually used together without losing the meaning.
Ex: a weekly paper,
musical – musical show
at present – at present time
private soldier – private
cinema theatre – cinema
3) Linguistic analogy is found when synonymous words acquire the like meanings.
Ex: verbs of getting hold with the hand - to catch, to get, to grasp
to catch, to get = to understand.
Nature of SCh
Meaning transfer is the basis of the semantic change. Different types of transfer depends on the nature of connection between the denotator and its name. We can figure out two types of such connection:
1) implication.
2) qualification.
There are some examples of meaning transfer of implication:
Metonymy
There are some types of metonymy:
1) Spatial – from place to people occupying this place.
Ex: The whole tow was sleeping.
2) Inventor
Ex: Вольт, Ом
Synecdoche
-kind of metonymy, involves part-to-whole relationship
- hand 'hired hand, employed worker';
tongue 'language'
3) Metaphor is a shift of meaning caused by the likeness.
Ex: Bridge – 1) a structure carrying a road over the river
2) a platform over ad across the deck of a ship
3) upper bone part of a nose between cheek bones
4) group of teeth that is fitted.
Metaphor can be found on:
1) the shape: eye of needle, mouth of the river.
2) position:foot of the mountain
3) behavior: two monkeys
4) Synesthesia unites denotator based on the sense perception.
Ex: soft music, soft voice, soft whisper, soft surface.
5) Functional transfer is a shift of meaning based on similarity of two denotators when they perform the same function.
Ex:the method of movement of an insect and a tractor reflected a word “caterpillar”
green trees – lynx of a human being or animal.
There are some examples of meaning transfer of qulifcation:
1) Litotes is a shift of meaning when the speaker expresses the affirmative with the negative or vice versa.
Ex: not bad = good
Hyperbole
Ex: to make a mountain out of a mole hill
8) Irony is a shift of meaning based on the contrast of two notions.
Ex: What a fine fried you are!
Results of semantic change
Fixed context is the consequence of synonymic differentiation: when synonyms are brought into competition, one of them comes to be restricted in use to a number of set expressions. The word meat originally had the broad meaning of ‘food’. The meaning ‘edible flesh’ was formed when the word food, its absolute synonym, won in the conflict of absolute synonyms (both words are native). Today meat in the meaning of ‘food’ is restricted in use to a number of compounds (e.g. mincemeat, nutmeat, sweetmeat) and expressions such as meat and drink. The same process took place with the English word meal in the meaning "edible ground grain" and the French borrowing flour. The original meaning is tracked in some production cycle terms such as drilling meal, feeding meal, bone meal.
The results of semantic change in the denotational component of lexical meaning are specialization and generalization of meaning.
Specialization (narrowing) of meaning is the restriction of the semantic capacity of a word in the course of its historical development, for example, the original meaning of the word deer was ‘an animal’. It was used for all kinds of animals. When the Latin word animal came into the English language the meaning of the word deer changed. Now it is used to name only one kind of animal (deer – олень); hound ‘the dog of any breed’ > ‘the dog able to chase’; glide ‘to move gently or smoothly’ – ‘to fly with no engine’. The original meaning of affection was – ‘any feeling’, the new meaning is ‘a feeling of love’.
Specialization of meaning involves an increase of information conveyed, since a changed word is applicable to fewer situations but tells us more about the referent.
Generalization (broadening, widening) of meaning is the extension of the semantic capacity of a word in the course of its historical development, resulting in the application of a word to a wider variety of referents. It includes change both from concrete to abstract and from specific to general. For example, the word target was originally used in the military sphere and meant ‘an object or area at which an archer or marksman aims’, now it implies ‘any point or area aimed at’ in any sphere, especially in marketing. The original meaning of the word to bootleg was ‘to sellalcoholic drinks illegally’, the new meaning is ‘to sell anything illegally’, e.g. a bootleg CD. In pagan England, hell meant ‘pagan underworld’ and heaven meant only ‘sky’, but the introduction of Christianity from abroad caused these words to lose their original meanings in favor of new Christian concepts.
Generalization of meaning increases the number of contexts in which a word can be used, although reducing the amount of information conveyed about the referent. Thus, the word mafia extended its meaning to ‘any secret group’ and is now used in contexts like literary mafia.
The results of semantic change in the connotative component of the lexical meaning are amelioration and pejoration of meaning.
Amelioration (melioration, elevation, bettering) of meaning is the improvement in the connotational component of meaning, the acquisition by a word of some positive emotive charge. For example, fame originally meant ‘report, common talk, rumour’, minister originally meant ‘servant’, sophisticated originally meant ‘artificial’. The original sense of handsome was ‘easy to handle or use’, hence ‘suitable’ and ‘apt, clever’ (mid 16th cent.), giving rise to the current appreciatory senses (late 16th cent.)
Nowadays amelioration is found with the words ambitious and aggressive which reveal a change of attitude towards those who seek advancement or success in a highly competitive fashion. The same can be followed in Russian: Я буду агрессивно поддерживать любого кандидата в президенты с центристской программой. У песни хорошая агрессия. Достижение лидерства в энергетике – это амбициозная задача. А в ближайшее время ивановские пивовары намерены достичь амбициозного показателя в 3,5 литра воды на производство 1 л продукции.
Pejoration (degradation, degeneration, deterioration, worsening) of meaning is a downward move in the evaluative attitude, the acquisition by a word of some derogatory or scornful emotive charge. It is frequently due to social prejudice. For example, knave ‘unprincipled man, rogue’ originally meant ‘boy’, puritan used to mean ‘a member of the Protestant Party who called for purification of the religion’,but later derived another derogatory sense which disagreeably was applied to ‘a person who has rather hard fixed standards of behaviour and self-control, and thinks pleasure is unnecessary or wrong’. The process of pejoration takes place with such Russian borrowings from English as пиар, гламур, пафос, креатив, though PR, glamour, pathos, creative which are the sources of the Russian loan words, are devoid of any derogatory evaluation. It’s recommended to transliterate these words like piar, glamur, pafos, kreativ and provide some additional explanation after a comma.