PETROLEUM REFINING OPERATIONS

TEXT # 1

BASICS OF CRUDE OIL

(https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iv/otm_iv_2.html)

Crude oil s are complex mixtures containing many different hydrocarbon compounds that vary in appearance and composition from one oil field to another. Crude oils range in consistency from water to tar-like solid s, and in color from clear to black. An "average" crude oil contains about 84% carbon, 14% hydrogen, 1%-3% sulfur, and less than 1% each of nitrogen, oxygen, metals, and salts. Crude oils are generally classified as paraffinic, naphthenic, or aromatic, based on the predominant proportion of similar hydrocarbon molecules. Mixed-base crude s have varying amounts of each type of hydrocarbon. Refinery crude base stock s usually consist of mixtures of two or more different crude oils.

Vocabulary:

1. basics - общая характеристика
2. crude oil - сырая нефть
3. hydrocarbon compounds - углеводородные соединения
4. in appearance - по внешнему виду
5. composition - химический состав
6. oil field - нефтяное месторождение
7. in consistency - по структуре; по плотности
8. tar-like solid - дёгтеобразное плотное вещество
9. sulfur - сера
10. nitrogen - азот
11. paraffinic - парафинистый
12. naphthenic - нафтеновый
13. mixed-base crude - нефть смешанного основания
14. base stock - базовый компонент; нефтяная основа

 

Crude oils are defined in terms of API (American Petroleum Institute) gravity. The higher the API gravity, the lighter the crude. For example, light crude oils have high API gravities and low specific gravities. Crude oils with low carbon, high hydrogen, and high API gravity are usually rich in paraffins and tend to yield greater proportions of gasoline and light petroleum products; those with high carbon, low hydrogen, and low API gravities are usually rich in aromatics.

Vocabulary:

1. gravity - плотность (в градусах Американского нефтяного института)
2. low specific gravity - низкий удельный вес

 

Crude oils that contain appreciable quantities of hydrogen sulfide or other reactive sulfur compounds are called " sour. " Those with less sulfur are called "sweet." Some exceptions to this rule are West Texas crudes, which are always considered "sour" regardless of their H2S content, and Arabian high-sulfur crudes, which are not considered "sour" because their sulfur compounds are not highly reactive.

Vocabulary:

1. appreci a ble q ua ntities - значительное количество
2. hydrogen sulfide - сероводород
3. “sour” - содержащий химически активную серу
4. exc e ptions to smth. - исключение из чего-л.
5. regardless of smth. - независимо от чего-л.

 

TEXT # 2

BASICS OF HYDROCARBON CHEMISTRY

(https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iv/otm_iv_2.html)

Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules, which are organic compounds of carbon and hydrogen atoms that may include from one to 60 carbon atoms. The properties of hydrocarbons depend on the number and arrangement of the carbon and hydrogen atoms in the molecules. The simplest hydrocarbon molecule is one carbon atom linked with four hydrogen atoms: methane. All other variations of petroleum hydrocarbons evolve from this molecule.

Vocabulary:

1. to include - включать
2. to depend on smth. - зависеть от чего-л.
3. arrangement - расположение; структура
4. to ev o lve from - развиваться; формироваться

 

Hydrocarbons contain ing up to four carbon atoms are usually gases, those with 5 to 19 carbon atoms are usually liquids, and those with 20 or more are solids. The refining process uses chemicals, catalysts, heat, and pressure to separate and combine the basic types of hydrocarbon molecules naturally found in crude oil into groups of similar molecules. The refining process also rearranges their structure s and bonding pattern s into different hydrocarbon molecules and compounds. Therefore it is the type of hydrocarbon (paraffinic, naphthenic, or aromatic) rather than its specific chemical compounds that is significant in the refining process.

Vocabulary:

1. to contain - содержать; состоять из (≈ to consist of)
2. refining process - процесс переработки
3. to rearrange the structure - перестраивать структуру; преобразовывать структуру
4. bonding pattern - связующая часть / звено

 

TEXT # 2.1

PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF HYDROCARBON COMPOUNDS

THAT OCCUR IN CRUDE OIL

(https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iv/otm_iv_2.html)

a. Paraffins. The paraffinic series of hydrocarbon compounds found in crude oil have the general formula CnH2n+2 and can be either straight chains (normal) or branched chain s (isomers) of carbon atoms. The lighter, straight-chain paraffin molecules are found in gases and paraffin waxes. Examples of straight-chain molecules are methane, ethane, propane, and butane (gases containing from one to four carbon atoms), and pentane and hexane (liquids with five to six carbon atoms). The branched-chain (isomer) paraffins are usually found in heavier fractions of crude oil and have higher octane numbers than normal paraffins. These compounds are saturated hydrocarbons, with all carbon bonds satisfied, that is, the hydrocarbon chain carries the full complement of hydrogen atoms.

Vocabulary:

1. p a raffin - парафиновый углеводород; углеводород парафинового ряда
2. branched chain - разветвлённая цепь
3. isomers - химические вещества, одинаковые по составу и молекулярной массе,

но различающиеся по строению и свойствам

1. s a turated hydrocarbons - насыщенные углеводороды
2. c o mplement - дополняющее количество

 

b. Aromatics are unsaturated ring-type (cyclic) compounds which react readily because they have carbon atoms that are deficient in hydrogen. All aromatics have at least one benzene ring (a single-ring compound characterized by three double bonds alternating with three single bonds between six carbon atoms) as part of their molecular structure. Naphthalenes are fused double-ring aromatic compounds. The most complex aromatics, polynuclears (three or more fused aromatic rings), are found in heavier fractions of crude oil.

Vocabulary:

1. aromatics - ароматические нефтепродукты
2. deficient in hydrogen - не имеющий водорода;

имеющий атомы водорода в малых количествах

1. benzene ring - бензольное кольцо; ароматическое кольцо
2. fused compound - конденсированное соединение
3. polynuclear - полициклическое (многоядерное) соединение

 

c. Naphthenes are saturated hydrocarbon groupings with the general formula CnH2n, arranged in the form of closed rings (cyclic) and found in all fractions of crude oil except the very lightest. Single-ring naphthenes (monocycloparaffins) with five and six carbon atoms predominate, with two-ring naphthenes (dicycloparaffins) found in the heavier ends of naphtha.

 

 

TEXT # 2.2

NONHYDROCARBONS

(https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iv/otm_iv_2.html)

a. Sulfur Compounds. Sulfur may be present in crude oil as hydrogen sulfide, as compounds (e.g. mercaptans, sulfides, disulfides) or as elemental sulfur. Each crude oil has different amounts and types of sulfur compounds, but as a rule the proportion, stability, and complexity of the compounds are greater in heavier crude-oil fractions. Hydrogen sulfide is a primary contributor to corrosion in refinery processing units. Other corrosive substances are elemental sulfur and mercaptans. Moreover, the corrosive sulfur compounds have an obnoxious odor.

Pyrophoric iron sulfide results from the corrosive action of sulfur compounds on the iron and steel used in refinery process equipment, piping, and tank s. The combustion of petroleum products containing sulfur compounds produces undesirables such as sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide. Catalytic hydrotreating process es such as hydrodesulfurization remove sulfur compounds from refinery product streams. Sweetening processes either remove the obnoxious sulfur compounds or convert them to odorless disulfide s, as in the case of mercaptans.

Vocabulary:

1. h y drogen s u lfide - сероводород
2. elem e ntal s u lfur - свободная сера в нефтепродуктах
3. stability - устойчивость
4. compl e xity - множество составляющих; многокомпонентность
5. refinery processing - химическая переработка нефти; крекинг
6. obn o xious o dor - неприятный запах
7. pyrophoric iron - пирофорное железо; пирофорность – способность твёрдого

материала в мелкораздробленном состоянии к

самовоспламенению на воздухе при отсутствии нагрева

1. tank - резервуар для хранения нефти или нефтепродуктов
2. comb u stion - сжигание; горение
3. undes i rables - нежелательные вещества / соединения
4. sulfuric acid - серная кислота
5. sulfur dioxide - двуокись серы
6. hydrotreating process - процесс гидроочистки (≈ sweetening process)
7. hydrodesulfurization - гидрообессеривание
8. o dorless disulfide - двусернистое соединение без запаха

 

b. Oxygen Compounds. Oxygen compound s such as phenol s, ketones, and carboxylic acid s occur in crude oils in varying amounts.

c. Nitrogen Compounds. Nitrogen is found in lighter fractions of crude oil as basic compounds, and more often in heavier fractions of crude oil as non-basic compounds that may also include trace metals such as copper, vanadium, and/or nickel. Nitrogen oxides can form in process furnaces. The decomposition of nitrogen compounds in catalytic cracking and hydrocracking processes forms ammonia and cyanide s that can cause corrosion.

 

Vocabulary:

1. o xygen c o mpound - кислородное соединение
2. ph e nol - карболовая кислота; бесцветные игольчатые кристаллы, розовеющие

на воздухе из-за окисления, приводящего к образованию окрашенных веществ; обладают специфическим запахом гуаши

1. k e tones - летучие жидкости или легкоплавкие твёрдые вещества, низшие

представители хорошо растворимы в воде и смешиваются с

органическими растворителями, некоторые (ацетон) смешиваются с

водой в любых отношениях

1. carbox y lic acid - карбоновая кислота; низшие карбоновые кислоты – жидкости с

острым запахом, хорошо растворимые в воде; высшие кислоты –

твердые вещества, без запаха, нерастворимые в воде

1. trace metals - металл, содержащийся в ничтожных количествах; сверхредкий металл
2. ammonia - аммиак (азотное соединение, получаемое при удалении азота при

гидрообработке нефтяной фракции)

1. cyanide [ ] - соль цианистоводородной кислоты

 

d. Trace Metals. Metals, including nickel, iron, and vanadium are often found in crude oils in small quantities and are removed during the refining process. Burning heavy fuel oil s in refinery furnace s and boiler s can leave deposit s of vanadium oxide and nickel oxide in furnace boxes, duct s, and tubes. It is also desirable to remove trace amounts of arsenic, vanadium, and nickel prior to pr o cessing as they can poison certain catalysts.

e. Salts. Crude oils often contain inorganic salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, and calcium chloride in suspension or dissolved in entrained water (brine). These salts must be removed or neutralized before pr o cessing to prevent catalyst poisoning, equipment corrosion, and fouling. Salt corrosion is caused by the hydrolysis of some metal chlorides to hydrogen chloride (HCl) and the subsequent formation of hydrochloric acid when crude is heated. Hydrogen chloride may also combine with ammonia to form ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), which causes fouling and corrosion.

Vocabulary:

1. heavy fuel oil - тяжелая топливная нефть; вязкий мазут; котельное топливо
2. furnace - печь
3. boiler - котёл
4. dep o sit - осадок
5. duct - дымоход; воздуховод
6. a rsenic - мышьяк
7. sodium chl o ride [ ] - хлорид натрия; каменная соль
8. magnesium chloride - хлорид магния
9. in suspension - во взвешенном состоянии; совокупность мельчайших частиц

твёрдого вещества в жидкости или газе

1. entrained water (brine) - скопившаяся вода; соляной раствор
2. fouling [ ] - загрязнение; засорение
3. hydrolysis - обменная реакция между веществом и водой, приводящая к

разложению молекулы вещества на более мелкие молекулы

1. hydrogen chloride - хлороводород
2. hydrochloric acid - соляная кислота

 

f. Carbon Dioxide. Carbon dioxide may result from the decomposition of bicarbonate s present in or added to crude, or from steam used in the distillation process.

g. Naphthenic Acids. Some crude oils contain naphthenic (organic) acids, which may become corrosive at temperatures above 450° F when the acid value of the crude is above a certain level.

Vocabulary:

1. carbon dioxide - углекислый газ; двуокись углерода
2. bic a rbonate - кислая соль угольной кислоты
3. acid value - коэффициент кислотности

 

TASKS

 

1. Dictation (Text # 1)

2. Dictation (Text # 2; 2.1)

3. Dictation (Text # 2.2)

4. Active and Passive Voice of the English Verb. Irregular Verbs.

5. Самостоятельная работа по п. 4.

 

TEXT # 3

MAJOR REFINERY PRODUCTS

(https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iv/otm_iv_2.html)

Gasoline. The most important refinery product is motor gasoline, a blend of hydrocarbons with boiling range s from ambient temperature s to about 400 °F. The important qualities for gasoline are octane number (antiknock), volatility (starting and vapor lock), and vapor pressure (environmental control). Additives are often used to enhance performance and provide protection against oxidation and rust formation.

Kerosene. Kerosene is a refined middle-distillate petroleum product that finds considerable use as a jet fuel and around the world in cooking and space heating. When used as a jet fuel, some of the critical qualities are freeze point, flash point, and smoke point. Commercial jet fuel has a boiling range of about 375°-525° F, and military jet fuel 130°-550° F. Kerosene, with less-critical specifications, is used for lighting, heating, solvents, and blending into diesel fuel.

Vocabulary:

1. ref i nery products - продукты нефтепереработки
2. g a soline - бензин
3. blend - смесь; сочетание
4. boiling range - интервал кипения (температурный)
5. a mbient temperature - температура окружающей среды
6. antiknock - детонационная стойкость
7. volat i lity - летучесть
8. starting - начало кипения
9. vapor lock - газовая пробка
10. additives - присадки (дополнительные вещества / реагенты) к нефтепродуктам
11. to enh a nce perf o rmance - повышать производительность
12. middle-distillate - средний дистиллят
13. jet fuel - реактивное топливо
14. space heating - отопление помещений
15. flash point - температура вспышки (топлива)
16. smoke point - температура дымообразования
17. comm e rcial fuel - промышленное топливо
18. specifications - технические характеристики
19. s o lvent - растворитель

 

Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG). LPG, which consists principally of propane and butane, is produced for use as fuel and is an intermediate material in the manufacture of petrochemicals. The important specifications for proper performance include vapor pressure and control of contaminant s.

Distillate Fuels. Diesel fuels and domestic heating oils have boiling ranges of about 400°-700° F. The desirable qualities required for distillate fuels include controlled flash and pour point s, clean burning, no deposit formation in storage tanks, and a proper diesel fuel cetane rating for good starting and combustion.

Vocabulary:

1. liquefied - сжиженный
2. interm e diate mat e rial - промежуточный материал / промежуточное вещество
3. cont a minant - загрязнитель; примесь
4. pour point - точка / температура текучести
5. clean burning - полное сгорание
6. dep o sit formation - осадкообразование

 

Residual Fuels. Many marine vessels, power plants, commercial buildings and industrial facilities use residual fuel s or combinations of residual and distillate fuels for heating and processing. The two most critical specifications of residual fuels are viscosity and low sulfur content for environmental control.

Coke and Asphalt. Coke is almost pure carbon with a variety of uses from electrodes to charcoal briquette s. A sphalt, used for roads and roofing materials, must be inert to most chemicals and weather conditions.

Solvents. A variety of products, whose boiling points and hydrocarbon composition are closely controlled, are produced for use as solvents. These include benzene, toluene, and xylene.

Vocabulary:

1. res i dual fuel - остаточное топливо
2. environmental control - контроль состояния окружающей среды
3. pure carbon - чистый углерод (уголь)
4. charcoal briquette - прессованный древесный уголь
5. in e rt to smth. [i`nə:t] - невосприимчивый к чему-л.
6. xyl e ne [ksai`li:n] - ксилол (применяющийся в качестве растворителя и

промежуточного продукта для получения красителей)

 

Petrochemicals. Many products derived from crude oil refining, such as ethylene, propylene, butylene, and isobutylene, are primarily intended for use as petrochemical feedstock in the production of plastics, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber s, and other products.

Lubricants. Special refining processes produce lubricating oil base stocks. Additives such as demulsifier s, antioxidant s, and viscosity improvers are blended into the base stocks to provide the characteristics required for motor oils, industrial grease s, lubricants, and cutting oil s. The most critical quality for lubricating-oil base stock is a high viscosity index, which provides for greater consistency under varying temperatures.

Vocabulary:

1. derived from - образованный от / в результате
2. butylene - бутилен (C4H8 - непредельный углеводород; бесцветный газ с

характерным запахом, температура кипения −6.6 °C)

1. isobutylene - изобутилен ((СН3)2С=СН2 - ненасыщенный углеводород; содержится

в газах крекинга нефти)

1. feedstock - сырьё; исходный материал
2. synth e tic rubber - синтетический каучук
3. demulsifier - деэмульгатор (поверхностно активное вещество, способное

адсорбироваться на поверхности глобул воды в нефти и в маслах,

разрушая при этом защитные плёнки, препятствующие слиянию и

осаждению частиц воды)

1. anti o xidant - противоокислительная присадка / противоокислитель
2. grease - смазочное вещество; консистентный смазочный материал
3. cutting oil - охлаждающее масло; эмульсия для охлаждения и смазки режущих

инструментов

1. provide for - обеспечивать; обусловливать; способствовать
2. cons i stency - устойчивость

 

TEXT # 4

PETROLEUM REFINING OPERATIONS

(https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iv/otm_iv_2.html)

INTRODUCTION. Petroleum refining begins with the distillation, or fractionation, of crude oils into separate hydrocarbon groups. The resultant products are directly related to the characteristics of the crude processed. Most distillation products are further converted into more usable products by changing the size and structure of the hydrocarbon molecules through cracking, reforming, and other conversion processes as discussed in this chapter. These converted products are then subjected to various treatment and separation processes such as extraction, hydrotreating, and sweetening to remove undesirable constituents and improve product quality. Integrated refineries incorporate fractionation, conversion, treatment, and blending operations and may also include petrochemical processing.

Vocabulary:

1. petroleum ref i ning - переработка нефти; очистка нефти и нефтепродуктов
2. s e parate groups - различные / обособленные группы
3. res u ltant products - продукты, получаемые в результате каких-л. процессов
4. related to smth. - относящийся к; имеющий отношение к чему-л.
5. u sable - пригодный для использования; пригодный к эксплуатации
6. cracking - крекинг; процесс расщепления нефти
7. ref o rming - реформинг; переработка нефтепродуктов (главным образом,

бензиновых и лигроиновых фракций нефти)

1. subj e ct to smth. - подвергать чему-л.
2. tr ea tment - технологическая обработка
3. undes i rable const i tuents - нежелательные компоненты
4. blending - смешивание (различных сортов нефти)

 

REFINING OPERATIONS. Petroleum refining processes and operations can be separated into five basic areas:

1. Fractionation (distillation) is the separation of crude oil in atmospheric and vacuum distillation towers into groups of hydrocarbon compounds of differing boiling-point ranges called "fractions" or " cut s."

2. Conversion processes change the size and/or structure of hydrocarbon molecules. These processes include:

3. Decomposition (dividing) by thermal and catalytic cracking;

4. Unification (combining) through alkylation and polymerization; and

5. Alteration (rearranging) with isomerization and catalytic reforming.

Vocabulary:

1. cuts - светлые фракции при разгонке
2. alkylation - алкилирование (введение алкильной группы в молекулу

органического соединения)

1. polymerization - полимеризация; процесс образования полимерных молекул из

мономеров

1. alteration (rearranging) - изменение (химического состава / структуры)

 

Treatment processes are intended to prepare hydrocarbon streams for additional processing and to prepare finished products. Treatment may include the removal or separation of aromatics and naphthenes as well as impurities and undesirable contaminant s. Treatment may involve chemical or physical separation such as dissolving, absorption, or precipitation using a variety and combination of processes including desalting, drying, hydrodesulfurizing, solvent refining, sweetening, solvent extraction, and solvent dewaxing.

Vocabulary:

1. imp u rities - примеси
2. cont a minant - загрязняющее вещество
3. dissolving - растворение
4. absorption - поглощение промывочной жидкости; потеря циркуляции;

уход промывочной жидкости

1. precipitation - выделение осадка
2. solvent refining - очистка селективными растворителями; селективная очистка
3. solvent dewaxing - депарафинизация растворителями

 

Formulating and Blending is the process of mixing and combining hydrocarbon fractions, additives, and other components to produce finished products with specific performance properties.

Other Refining Operations include: light-ends recovery; sour-water stripping; solid waste and wastewater treatment; process-water treatment and cooling; storage and handling; product movement; hydrogen production; acid and tail-gas treatment; and sulfur recovery.

Auxiliary operations and facilities include: steam and power generation; process and fire water systems; flares and relief systems; furnaces and heaters; pumps and valves; supply of steam, air, nitrogen, and other plant gases; alarm s and sensors; noise and pollution controls; sampling, testing, and inspecting; and laboratory, control room, maintenance, and administrative facilities.

Vocabulary:

1. formul a ting - образование смеси
2. spec i fic perf o rmance - удельная производительность; удельная характеристика
3. light-ends rec o very - извлечение лёгких фракций
4. sour-water stripping - отгонка (отдувка) кислой воды; отпарка кислых стоков
5. solid waste treatment - обезвреживание твёрдых отходов
6. wastewater treatment - очистка / обработка сточных вод
7. pr o cess-water treatment - подготовка технологической воды
8. cooling - охлаждение; выдерживание опасных отходов

(особенно, радиоактивных)

1. handling - техническое обслуживание; погрузка, разгрузка и транспортировка
2. a cid treatment - кислотная очистка сырой нефти
3. tail-gas treatment - обработка остаточного газа
4. aux i liary operations - вспомогательные операции
5. power generation - получение энергии; производство электроэнергии
6. process system - система подготовки продукции
7. fire water system - система пожарного водоснабжения
8. flare system - факельная система; система сброса газа
9. rel ie f system - (техника) система сброса
10. al a rm - механизм автоматической сигнализации
11. sampling - взятие проб (образцов)
12. contr o l room - пост управления и контроля; пульт управления
13. maint e nance fac i lity - зона технического обслуживания

 

 

TASKS

 

1. Dictation (Text # 3)

2. Dictation (Text # 4)

3. Participle I. Participle II. “-ing” and “-ed”.

4. Самостоятельная работа по п. 3.