Who, whom, whose, what, which, where, when, why
Если местоимения who, what играют роль подлежащего, в вопросе употребляется прямой порядок слов.
Who is singing?
BUT: Who did you meet at the party? (вопрос к дополнению)
Whom может употребляться с любыми предлогами.
With whom did you play football? OR
Who did you play football with? (современная форма)
Предлог, относящийся к what обычно ставиться в конце предложения.
What are you talking about?
Which обычно используется, когда есть ограниченный выбор.
Which size do you want small, medium or large?
Which is nicer, the black dress or the red one?
BUT: What languages can you speak? (Выбор не ограничен)
Which of используется с одушевленными существительными.
Which of you can help me?
Очень часто оба местоимения what, which используются без разницы в смысле.
What / which is the longest river in the world?
Местоимение whose употребляется по отношению к одушевленным и не одушевленным предметам.
Relative pronouns:
Who, whom, whose, what, which, where, when, why
служат для связи придаточных предложений с главным. Они являются союзными словами, которые отличаются от союзов тем, что они не только связывают придаточное предложение с главным, но и являются членами придаточного предложения
Who / that / whose – употребляются по отношению к людям
That’s the boy who / that lives next door.
The boy who / whom / that he waved to is my cousin.
That’s the man whose wife was awarded a grant.
Which / that / whose / of which – употребляются по отношению к предметам и животным
I saw the film which / that was directed by Polanski.
The dog which / that you saw outside is my neighbour’s.
That’s the table the leg of which (whose leg) is broken.
Notice! Местоимение that никогда не употребляется после запятых и предлогов.
She's the girl who / that got a very good degree.The girl in the back, who is sitting next to Mary, is my niece.
He was educated at the local grammar school, after which he went on to Cambridge.
Местоимение one употребляется в роли существительного
1) для обозначения неопределенного лица
One should believe in something.
2) для избегания повторения в единственном или множественном числе.
В этом случае местоимение one может употребляться с артиклем the. Green apples are better than red ones.
This film is more interesting than the one we saw yesterday.
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https://dictionary. cambridge. org/grammar/british-grammar/relative-pronouns
Relative pronouns
| who | people and sometimes pet animals | defining and non-defining |
| which | animals and things | defining and non-defining; clause referring to a whole sentence |
| that | people, animals and things; informal | defining only |
| whose | possessive meaning; for people and animals usually; sometimes for things in formal situations | defining and non-defining |
| whom | people in formal styles or in writing; often with a preposition; rarely in conversation; used instead of who if who is the object | defining and non-defining |
| no relative pronoun | when the relative pronoun defines the object of the clause | defining only |
We don’t know the person who donated this money.
We drove past my old school, which is celebrating its 100th anniversary this year.
He went to the school (that) my father went to.
The parents (whom/who/that) we interviewed were all involved in education in some way.
Relative pronouns: who
We use who in relative clauses to refer to people, and sometimes to pet animals. We use it to introduce defining and non-defining relative clauses:
That’s the dog who doesn’t like me. (defining; referring to a pet animal)
Subjects and objects
Who can act as the subject or the object of the relative clause:
She’s going out with a bloke who ’s in the army. (bloke is an informal word for a man)
The woman who I saw yesterday was Sheila.
Who + prepositions
We can use who as the complement of a preposition:
It was Cath who Ian gave the keys to. It wasn’t me.
We put the preposition at the end of the relative clause, and not immediately before who:
Of all my friends, she’s the one who I know I can rely on.
Who with collective groups of people
We often use who with collective human nouns (e.g. committee, government, group, panel, police, team):
Nicola phoned the fire brigade, who then alerted the police and social workers.
We do not use who for things:
There are some very good art books which you can get ideas from.
Relative pronouns: whom
Warning:
We use whom in formal styles or in writing to refer to people when the person is the object of the verb. It is much more common in writing than in speaking:
The response of those managers whom I have consulted has been very positive and we are looking forward to meeting together.
She was a celebrated actress whom he had known and loved, on and off, almost since her first appearance on the stage.
Whom + prepositions
The most common use of whom is with a preposition.
The first book was a terrible historical novel for children which was turned down by every publisher to whom it was sent.
Drama in schools is particularly good for pupils for whom English is a second language.
Compare
| more formal | less formal |
| There was only one person to whom the old man spoke. | There was only one person who the old man spoke to. |
| She smiled as she remembered the quiet scholar with whom she had shared a love of books. | She smiled as she remembered the quiet scholar who she had shared a love of books with. |
Relative pronoun: whose
We usually use whose as a relative pronoun to indicate possession by people and animals. In more formal styles we can also use it for things.
We use whose before nouns instead of a possessive expression (my, your, his, her, its, our, their, x’s) in defining and non-defining clauses:
He’s marrying a girl whose family don’t seem to like him.
There was me and there was Kate, whose party it was, and then there were two other people.
It is a rambling Tudor house, whose sitting room looks out over a wonderful walled garden.
Whose + prepositions
We can use whose + noun as the complement of a preposition:
Kate, whose sister I used to share a house with, has gone to work in Australia.
Compare
| more formal | more informal |
| Thomas Goldney III, in whose house and garden several generations of Bristol students have now lived, was described in the late 18th century as ‘a very curious gentleman’. | Thomas Goldney III, whose house and garden several generations of Bristol students have now lived in, was described in the late 18th century as ‘a very curious gentleman’. |
Relative pronouns: which
We use which in relative clauses to refer to animals and to things. We use it to introduce defining and non-defining relative clauses.
We always use which to introduce relative clauses when they refer to a whole sentence or clause:
You need to tick the box which says yes. (defining)
He won’t have much time to prepare for the meeting, which is this afternoon. (non-defining)
She had to get up and walk all the way to the other side of the room, which isn’t easy with a bad back.
We use which or that, not what:
Another activity which / that I have chosen is photography.
Subjects and objects
Which can act as the subject or the object of the relative clause:
The new sports complex, which will be built on the site of the old power station, will provide facilities for cricket, soccer, bowls and badminton.
It was the same picture which I saw at the National Gallery.
Which + prepositions
Early in the Autumn Term there is a reception at which you can meet current staff and students.
Close by, in the churchyard, is the famous Rudston stone, from which the village takes its name. (
Compare
| more formal | more informal |
| The title of the poem indicates that the poet knows himself to be separated from the community in which he grew up. | I’ve never felt close to the community which I grew up in. |
Which referring to a whole sentence
Relative clauses referring to a whole sentence are always introduced by which:
There’s going to be a new headteacher in September, which is good. It’s time for a change.
Relative pronouns: that
We use that instead of who, whom or which in relative clauses to refer to people, animals and things. We use it to introduce defining clauses only. That is more informal than who, whom or which:
We met somebody last night that did the speech therapy course two years after you.
The 8.30 is the train that you need to get.
She blamed herself for everything that had happened.
Subjects and objects
That can act as the subject or the object of the relative clause:
He finally remembers one lesson that his mum had taught him early – Don’t take money that doesn’t belong to you.
It’s the same cooker that my mother has.
That after superlatives
We often use that after superlatives:
The Wimbledon men’s final was the best game of tennis that I’ve ever seen.
That + prepositions
That can refer to the complement of a preposition:
We’ve got some tennis balls that you can play with.
Warning:
Unlike which, whom and whose, we can’t use that with the preposition immediately before it:
Not: We’ve got some tennis balls with that you can play.
No relative pronoun
In informal styles, we often leave out the relative pronoun. We only do this in defining relative clauses, and when the relative pronoun is the object of the verb. We don’t leave out the relative pronoun when it is the subject of the verb nor in non-defining relative clauses:
German is a language which I’ve found hard to learn. (defining relative clause: which is the object)
She’s the singer who I heard on the radio. (defining relative clause: who is the object)
There’s a hill which begins three miles after the start of the race. (defining relative clause: which is the subject)
Not: There’s a hill begins three miles after the start of the race.
Sir James, whose birthday is on February 26, plans to lay on a big party. (non-defining relative clause)
No relative pronoun + preposition
In defining relative clauses, we can also leave out the relative pronoun when it is the complement of a preposition. When we do this, we always put the preposition at the end of the relative clause:
She was at the garden party which I was telling you about. or She was at the garden party about which I was telling you. (defining relative clause: which is the complement of about)
Relative pronouns: w hen, where and why
| where | places | I know a restaurant where the food is excellent. (… a restaurant at which the food is excellent) |
| when | times | There isn’t a day when I don’t feel rushed off my feet. (… a day on which I don’t feel rushed …) |
| why | reasons | Do you know the reason why the shop is closed today? (… the reason for which the shop is closed …) |
Relative pronouns: typical errors
· We can’t use that instead of who, whom or which in non-defining relative clauses:
It gives me a good chance to improve my Italian, which has become a little bit rusty.
Not: It gives me a good chance to improve my Italian, that has become a little bit rusty.
· We don’t use what as a relative pronoun:
So, he can make himself easily understood in the two languages, which helps a lot.
Not: So, he can make himself easily understood in the two languages, what helps a lot.
· We don’t use who for things:
She’s written some great cookery books which have got pictures of delicious-looking recipes.
Not: She’s written some great cookery books who have got pictures of delicious-looking recipes.
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https://biopharmblog.wordpress.com/2015/11/28/defining-and-non-defining-clauses
Defining and non-defining clauses:
дом, который построил Джек
В русском языке такого понятия нет, поэтому, например, во фразе «Вот дом, который построил Джек» мы ставим запятую, а англичане (This is the house that Jack built) – нет.
Эта тема очень важна для правильного перевода на английский язык конструкций со словами который, чей, что и т. д. Итак, в английском языке существуют так называемые relative clauses (придаточные предложения, выполняющее функцию определения). Они могут быть defining (показывают, о чем или о ком мы говорим) и non-defining (содержат дополнительную информацию, которую можно выкинуть).
1) Рассмотрим сначала defining clauses, которые содержат крайне важную информацию, которую нельзя выкинуть, не изменив смысла фразы. Возьмем такие примеры:
The bike that is broken is in the garage.
В этом случае с помощью определителя that is broken мы выделяем предмет из ряда других. Иными словами, у нас есть много велосипедов, и тот, что сейчас сломан, стоит в гараже.
Tom’s brother who works at the supermarket is a friend of mine. Вопрос. Сколько у Тома братьев? Ответ: два или больше. В данном случае определитель who works at the supermarket позволяет нам выделить именно этого брата из всех остальных. Если мы выкинем этот оборот, понять, о каком именно из братьев идет речь, мы не сможем.
Stroke incidence data are obtained from sources that use the ICD (International Code of Diseases) classification systems.
Мы не можем выкинуть relative clause, поскольку иначе информации будет явно недостаточно (from sources. Из каких-то неизвестных источников?).
Итак, defining clauses содержат информацию, важную для понимания всей фразы, их нельзя выкинуть, не потеряв смысл, они позволяют выделить предмет из ряда остальных и не отделяются запятыми (несмотря на то, что в русском языке перед словами который, чей и т.д. запятая всегда ставится).
Также стоит помнить, что с одушевленными существительными употребляется who (в разговорной речи его можно заменить на that), а с неодушевленными – which.
2) Non-defining clauses вводят дополнительную информацию, которую можно выкинуть, и смысл фразы будет по-прежнему ясен. Вспомним про велосипед в гараже и сделаем из него non-defining clause:
The bike, which is broken, is in the garage.
В этом случае велосипед у нас только один, он стоит в гараже. То, что он сломан, является дополнительной информацией, которую можно и выкинуть, и фраза по-прежнему будет осмысленной.
NB! Обратите внимание на запятые и на то, что они не дружат с that! Только which/who!
Tom’s brother, who works at the supermarket, is a friend of mine.
Вопрос. Сколько у Тома братьев?
Ответ: один. Выкидываем who works at the supermarket, получаем тот же смысл, просто без дополнительной информации.
Еще один пример использования non-defining clauses – предложения с конструкциями после «что», например:
Курение наносит вред здоровью, что (и это) хорошо известно каждому курильщику.
Smoking is bad for your health, which is well known to every smoker.
В подобных случаях необходимо ставить запятую и использовать which в качестве подлежащего. Если предложение очень длинное, лучше разбить его на части:
Smoking is bad for your health. This is well known to every smoker.
(или, что еще лучше, переделаем в active voice: Every smoker knows it very well).
| Defining clauses | Non-defining clauses | |
| Можно ли убрать? | Нет, без него предложение потеряет смысл. Нет, без него непонятно, о каком предмете из ряда других идет речь. | Можно, сообщает дополнительную информацию. |
| Можно ли заменить на that? | ДА | НЕТ |
| Нужны ли запятые? | НЕТ (that не дружит с запятыми) | ДА |
NB: who/which/that + have так заменять нельзя:
We need to talk about some problems that have arisen during the operation.
Также следует помнить, что оборот после which/ who/ that относится к слову, стоящему перед ним. Соответственно, если в русской фразе это не так, перевод лучше построить таким образом, чтобы избежать двусмысленности. Вот пара забавных примеров на эту тему:
The man who spoke French… The dog that bit me…
Добавим дополнительную информацию про мужчину и собаку, забыв, что разделять определяемое слово и that/who нельзя:
The man on the horse who spoke French…
The dog sitting near the building that bit me…
Так что помните о лошади-полиглоте и ставьте who/that только после слова, к которому они относятся!