METAPHOR AND THE PHRASEOLOGICAL UNIT
A phraseological unit is a set expression consisting of a group of words in a fixed order having a particular meaning, different from the meanings of each word understood on its own.166
Metaphor is a figurative expression, transferring the meaning from one thing to another based on their similarity: table legs – ножки стола; to strain one’s memory –напрягать память.
Phraseological units may be both metaphorical (keep to the beaten track – идти по проторенной дорожке; make a mountain out of a molehill – делать из мухислона) and non-metaphorical (to live beyond one’s means – жить не по средствам; to take part in – принимать участие в). Metaphorical phraseology is usually called idioms.
^Chapter 7. ANTONYMIC TRANSLATION
DEFINITION
Antonymic translation is a complex transformation when a source language construction is shifted to a target language construction, whose components are of opposite meanings.
Therearethreemajortypesofantonymictransformations:
1.
substituting a wordwithitsantonym (^ Snowdriftsarethreefeet deep. – Сугробы высотой в один метр.)orconversive (Someofthecountry’sarttreasureshavebeensecretly sold toforeignbuyers. – Покупатели-иностранцы тайно скупили некоторые из художественных шедевров страны.)
2.
substituting a negative sentence with an affirmative one and vice versa: I never heard of it! – Впервыйразслышу!
3.
shifting the position of a negative component: I don’t think I can do it. – Думаю, янесмогуэтогосделать.
§4. REASONS FOR ANTONYMIC TRANSLATION
Antonymic translation may be caused by a lack of a regular one-word equivalent in the target language. For example, the word inferiority is equivalent to the explicatory translation ‘болеенизкоекачество, положение’. But this phrase is very awkward in some translations, so translators have to apply the antonymic translation: The adoption of the defensive does not necessarily mean the weakness or inferiority of our troops. – Переход к обороненеобязательноозначаетслабостьнашихвойскилипревосходствосилпротивника.
§2. TRANSLATION OF ADVERBIAL VERBS
Adverbial verbs are verbs of complex semantics: they express simultaneously two meanings – that of an action and that of its characteristics. For example, to stare – смотретьпристально; to shrill – пронзительно кричать. Atranslation equivalent is usually represented in the dictionary either by a verb and adverb or by a simple verb of complex semantics (to stare – уставиться), or by a verb and prepositional phrase: to rumble – ехать с грохотом.
Semantically, adverbial verbs can be classified into the following groups:183
1.
verbs expressing movement accompanied by some sound: to jingle – мчаться, звеня бубенцами; to creak – двигаться со скрипом; to bang – с хлопком, etc. These verbs are usually translated with the help of an adverbial participle (деепричастие) or a prepositional and nominal group.
2.
Verbs expressing a shift from one place into another: ^ He danced her out into a quiet corridor. – Танцуя с ней, он увел ее в пустой коридор.
3.
causative verbs: The slaves were whipped into work. – Рабов заставили работать с помощью кнута. (translation with a prepositional phrase). The threat angered him into activity.. –
4.
verbsexpressingcauseandeffect: Quietlyshesangherselfthatnightintofame. – Она так пела, что незаметно для себя в тот вечер стала знаменитойпевицей. (translated through a sentence partitioning).
§3. TRANSLATING CONDENSED SYNONYMS
There are rare cases when English proves to be more wordy than Russian. One of these cases is synonym condensation,185 or usage of a number of parallel synonyms which are very close in meaning: The government resorted to force and violence. In Russian linguistics, this phenomenon is called «парнаясинонимия».
One of these synonyms is usually of Romance origin, the other is Germanic: ^ Elvis Presley denied being lewd and obscene, with lewd being a Germanic word, and obscene a Latin borrowing. Элвис Пресли не признавал себя непристойным.
As is seen in this example, a translator into Russian normally reduces the synonyms to a single one: the very first sentence in this paragraph might be translated as Правительствоприбегло к насилию.
If the synonym condensation is used in an oratorical register, to make speech more emphatic and expressive, it is compensated by intensifiers: I have been open and sincere … - Яабсолютно искренен… I am safe and sound. – Я жив-здоров. (This is, probably, the only case of synonym reduplication in Russian)
B. Borrowing
Concerning borrowing, we can say that this task refers to a case where a word or an expression is taken from the SL and used in the TL, but in a ‘naturalized’ form, that is, it is made to conform to the rules of grammar or pronunciation of the TL. An example of Borrowing is the verb 'mailer', which is used in Canadian-French utterance; here, the French suffix-er is added to the English verb 'mail' to conform to the French rules of verb-formation (Edith Harding & Philip Riley, 1986).[2]
Borrowed words may sometimes have different semantic significations from those of the original language. For instance, the Moroccan word ‘tammara’, which is borrowed from Spanish, means in Moroccan Arabic 'a difficult situation', whereas in Spanish it conveys the meaning of a 'type of a palm tree'. The same thing can be said about the word ‘flirter’, which refers in French to a sexual foreplay, while in English the term means behaving towards someone as though one were in love with but without serious intentions. (The last example is used by Bayar, 2007).[3] Borrowing in translation is not always justified by lexical gap in the TL, but it can mainly be used as a way to preserve the local color of the word, or be used out of fear from losing some of the semiotic aspects and cultural aspects of the word if it is translated.
Chapter 9. DIFFERENCE IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN PUNCTUATION
§1. PRINCIPLES OF PUNCTUATION IN ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN
It is difficult to overstate the importance of proper punctuation in written translation. Readers of translation evaluate not only the content but also the form of the translation. A translator’s accuracy, neatness, efficiency and carefulness are assessed by the completed translation. Moreover, a firm’s reputation can depend on the accurate and neat documents prepared by the translator.
The semantic role of punctuation is crucial when a comma can decide vital things (remember the Russian joke: Казнитьнельзяпомиловать. Or the analogous English phrase:Some time after the actual date was set.)
English and Russian punctuation “provide a fresh challenge”144 for both Russian and English students because it is based on different principles in both languages. In Russian, punctuation is, first and foremost, structurally dependent, which means that specific structures (such as parallel (homogeneous) parts of the sentence, participial phrases, subordinate clauses etc.) are singled out in the sentence. Russian punctuation is regulated by syntactic rules - for many Russian schoolchildren syntax is associated with punctuation. English punctuation is logically and communicatively bound. It depends much more on semantics and intonation; therefore, it is likely that Russian students consider it to be more subjective. Optional information segments and rhythmic groups are normally separated by a comma: At the back of good English dictionaries, there is usually a list of current abbreviations. Also, we noticed that the salaries declined after the first year. In general, the principle of English punctuation can be formulated as follows: the closer semantic bonds, the closer the word position should be. The more optional information is, the more separated (by punctuation marks) the sentence parts are.
^
§2. DIFFERENCES IN COMMA USAGE
In an English sentence, the comma is generally used to separate an adverbial phrase or clause preceding the main clause: By then, early estimates of as many as 250 fatalities had begun to look far too high. – Ктомувремениоказалось, чтопрежниесообщенияо 250 жертвахземлетрясениябылизначительнопреувеличены. If you feel seasick, take one of these pills. – Cf. Take one of these pills if you are seasick (no comma before a postpositional adverbial clause).
No comma is used to separate the subject and predicate clauses: ^ What he said was not what he thought. (The exception to the rule is when two similar linking verbs happen to conjoin: What he is, is not known.)
The comma may be omitted in short compound sentences in which the connection between the clauses is close: She understood the situation and she was furious.
In English asyndetic (without a conjunction) coordinate clauses are considered bad style. They are usually partitioned into independent sentences or separated by a semicolon:Кончилсядождь, защебеталиптицы. – It stopped raining. Birds started chirping. Or It stopped raining; birds started chirping.
§3. USING THE DASH
In English punctuation system, the dash is perhaps the strongest marker.
It indicates a sudden break or abrupt change in continuity, which in Russian is usually marked by ellipses:
Well, you see, I ─ I’ve ─ I’m just not sure.
Видите ли, я … я был … я просто не уверен.
Well, then, I’ll simply tell her that ─
Ну, тогда я просто скажу ей, что …
The dash sets apart an explanatory or defining phrase: Foods high in protein – meats, fish, eggs, and cheese – should be a part of one’s daily diet. Продукты, богатые белками: мясо, рыба, яйца и сыр – должны входить в ежедневный рацион человека. Wesuddenlyrealizedwhattheglitteringgemswere – emeralds. Неожиданно мы поняли, что это были за сверкающие камни: изумруды.
There is no dash introducing dialogue in English. Instead, quotation marks are used. Compare:
- Вот ваша зарплата. За то, что вы бездельничаете в конторе по 7 час.в день.
- Простите, - восемьчасов.
“^ Here’s your pay for loafting in the office seven hours a day.”
“Excuse me - eight hours.”
In English there is no dash introducing the author’s words after direct quotations: «Яскоровернусь», – сказалон. “I’ll be back soon,” he said.
^
§4. USING QUOTATION MARKS
There are two types of quotation marks in English – double and single quotation marks. Double quotation marks enclose direct quotations, single ones are used within quotations:Mary said, “I heard the thief yell, ‘Quick! Let’s get out of here!’ ” Or “I heard the thief yell, ‘Quick! Let’s get out of here!’ ” said Mary. Or “I heard,” said Mary, “the thief yell, ‘Quick! Let’s get out of here!’ ”
§5. USING THE COLON AND SEMICOLON
The semicolon separates the clauses of a compound sentence having no coordinating conjunction: The questions are provided by the analyst; the answers come from the data.Вопросыготовятсяаналитиком, ответывыводятсяизданных.
The semicolon can also be used to separate clauses of a compound sentence joined by a conjunctive adverb, such as nonetheless, however, hence, therefore: We demanded the refund; however, the manufacturer refused to give us one.
Like in Russian, the colon introduces words, phrases, or clauses that explain or summarize the preceding information: ^ Suddenly I knew where I was: Paris. The colon can introduce quotations, but only long ones: In his Gettysburg Address, Lincoln said: “Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. …”
The colon is used in formal letters to separate the name of a person addressed:
Dear Sir or Madam:
Dear Mr. Johnson:
Gentlemen:
^
§6. USING THE ELLIPSES
Like in Russian, the ellipses indicate the omission of words or sentences within quoted matter. But unlike Russian, if the omission takes place at the end of the sentence, four points are used: As George Bernard Shaw remarked, “Liberty means responsibility. … Mostmendreadit.”