Example: (1) authority
Impeachment is the constitutional (1) полномочие of the House of (2) представителей to (3) выдвигать обвинения against high government officials including the President. The Senate has the sole power to (4) судить all (5) обвинения в порядке импичмента. A vote of two-thirds of the senators present is required for (6) обвинительный приговор (verdict of guilty). The (7) наказание is (8) смещение с должности.
The first American President impeached by the House was Andrew Johnson (1868), who wastried and (9) оправдан. But 1974 saw an equally historic confrontation arising out of the "Watergate" affair, which centered on (10) незаконный campaign contributions and involved President Richard Nixon. Before a (11) суд could take place, however, President Nixon (12) ушел в отставку, and Gerald R. Ford, then Vice President, took over.
| impeachment charges removal from office Representatives | illegal try penalty | bring charges acquitted trial | resigned conviction authority |
READING COMPREHENSION
a) Read the text ‘The Federal Courts and the Executive’.
The Federal Courts and the Executive
The United States federal judiciary was established under Article III of the Constitution. With certain exceptions, the federal courts have jurisdiction to hear a broad variety of cases. The same federal judges handle both civil and criminal cases involving individuals, corporations and governments; appeals on law matters.
Although, the federal judiciary is a separate and independent branch of the government, there is certain interaction between the courts and the executive branch of the federal government. This interaction is constitutionally provided by the system of checks and balances which is used to keep any branch from obtaining too much power and misusing its powers.
Under Article III of the Constitution, the President nominates judges to a lifetime appointment. However, all these appointees must be approved by the Senate. The President usually consults senators or other elected officials concerning potential candidates for vacancies in the federal courts.
The President’s power to appoint new federal judges is not the judiciary’s only interaction with the executive. The Department of Justice, which is responsible for prosecuting federal crimes and for representing the government in criminal cases, is the most frequent litigator in the federal court system. Several other executive branch agencies are involved with court operations. The United States Marshals Service, for example, provides security for federal courthouses and judges, and the General Service builds and maintains federal courthouses.
Within the executive branch there are military courts and a number of other specialized tribunals and administrative agencies that resolve disputes in the first instance involving specific federal laws and programs, such as tax laws, patent and copyright laws, labor laws, social security statutes and regulations, approval of radio and TV licenses, and like. Although these executive branch bodies are not part of the judiciary established under Article III of the Constitution, appeals of their final decisions are typically taken to the courts established under Article III.
Although, the courts themselves do not have the power to enforce the laws (that is the role of the President and the executive branch departments and agencies), all federal courts and judges may decide issues regarding the constitutionality of federal laws and other governmental actions that arise in the cases they hear.
B) To show that you understand the main points of the text, answer the following questions in writing. Give as laconic answers as possible.
1) What cases fall under the jurisdiction of the federal courts?
2) How does the Constitution provide for the interaction between the courts and the executive branch of the federal government?
3) What is the President’s constitutional power over the federal judiciary within the system of checks and balances?
4) What executive branch departments and agencies are involved with court operations?
5) What executive branch bodies were not established under Article III of the Constitution but have judicial functions?
6) How can the courts influence the activities of the executive branch bodies?
C) Translate the marked passage of the text into Russian in writing.
GRAMMAR REFERENCE
3rd Year 5th Term
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Условные предложения
Conditional Sentences are also known as If Clauses. They consist of 2 parts: Main Clause (without if) and Conditional Clause (with if). They are used to express that an action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled.
Example:
If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.
I will go to Japan if I have enough money
(If the main clause is at the beginning of the sentence, don't use a comma.)
There are three basic types of Conditional Sentences:
1. First Conditional: If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.
2. Second Conditional: If I had enough money, I would go to Japan.
3. Third Conditional: If I had had enough money, I would have gone to Japan.
First Conditional
Meaning: It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled.
Form: if + Simple Present, will + Infinitive
Time: This condition refers either to present or to future time.
Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation. (Если я найду ее адрес, я пошлю ей приглашение.)
Note: Main clause and/or if-clause might be negative.
Example: If I don’t see him this afternoon, I will phone him in the evening. (Если я не увижу его днем, я позвоню ему вечером.)
Second Conditional
Meaning: It is possible but very unlikely that the condition will be fulfilled.
Form: if + Simple Past, would + Infinitive
Time: This condition refers to present time (now), although the TENSE is past.
Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation. (Если бы я нашел ее адрес, я бы послал ей приглашение.)
Note: Main clause and/ or if-clause might be negative.
Example: If I had a lot of money, I wouldn’t stay here. (Если бы у меня было много денег, я бы не остался здесь.)
Third Conditional
Meaning: It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled as it refers to the past.
Form: if + Past Perfect, would + have + Past Participle
Time: This condition refers topast time (we are talking about the situation which was not so in the past).
Example: If I had found her address then, I would have sent her an invitation. (Если бы я нашел ее адрес тогда, я бы послал ей приглашение.)
Remember!
1) The conditional construction does not normally use will or would in if-clauses.
EXCEPTION: If will or would express willingness, as in requests, they can be used in if-clauses.
If you will come this way, the manager will see you now. (=Please, come this way.)
I would be grateful if you would give me a little help. (=Please, give me a little help.)
2) For the Second Conditional were replaces was.
If I were a rich man …
If he were a rich man …
3) After if, we can either use “some (-one, -where …)” or “any (-one, -where …)”.
If I have some spare time next weekend …
or:
If I have any spare time …
4) Instead of if not we can use unless.
I’ll accept the job unless the salary is too low. (I’ll accept the job if the salary is not too low.)
5) There is a “mixed type” as well, for the present results of an unreal condition in the past.
If + Past Perfect, would + Infinitive
If you had warned me (then), I would not be in prison (now).
WORD FORMATION
Словообразование
New words can be formed by adding PREFIXES or SUFFIXES to a ROOT WORD. A SUFFIX is a letter or a group of letters attached to the end of a word to form a new word or to change the grammatical function of the original word. For example, the verb read can be made into the noun reader by adding the suffix - er or into the adjective readable by adding the suffix - able. A PREFIX is a letter or a group of letters attached to the beginning of a word. For example, the verb employ can be made into the adjective unemployed by adding the prefix un- and suffix -ed.
Understanding the meaning of the common suffixes and prefixes can help us understand the meaning of new words that we encounter.
Noun Suffixes
Verbs to Nouns
| SUFFIX | VERB – NOUN | VERB – NOUN | VERB – NOUN |
| -AL | approve – approval | propose – proposal | dismiss – dismissal |
| -ANCE/ -ENCE | attend – attendance | insure – insurance | exist – existence |
| -ATION/ -TION | inform – information | declare – declaration | legislate – legislation |
| -(S)ION | decide – decision | divide – division | impress – impression |
| -URE | depart – departure | fail – failure | legislate – legislature |
| -MENT | agree – agreement | govern – government | punish – punishment |
| -AGE | pass – passage | marry – marriage | bag – baggage |
| -ING | bless – blessing | write – writing | land – landing |
| -ERY | slave (n) – slavery | bake – bakery | brew – brewery |
Adjectives to Nouns
| SUFFIX | ADJECTIVE – NOUN | ADJECTIVE – NOUN | ADJECTIVE – NOUN |
| -NESS | useful – usefulness | kind – kindness | quiet – quietness |
| -ITY | active – activity | curious – curiosity | real – reality |
| -ISM | colonial – colonialism | human – humanism | ideal – idealism |
| -TH | wide – width | long – length | dead – death |
| -Y | private – privacy | difficult – difficulty | honest – honesty |
| -TY | safe – safety | cruel – cruelty | loyal – loyalty |
Nouns to Nouns
| SUFFIX | NOUN – NOUN | NOUN – NOUN | NOUN – NOUN |
| -SHIP | censor – censorship | partner – partnership | scholar – scholarship |
| -DOM | star – stardom | king – kingdom | fan – fandom |
| -HOOD | child – childhood | brother – brotherhood | neighbor – neighborhood |
Nouns for people
| SUFFIX | NOUN – PERSON | NOUN - PERSON | NOUN - PERSON |
| -ANT/ -ENT | assist – assistant | preside – president | reside – resident |
| -ARIAN | vegetable – vegetarian | human – humanitarian | parliament – parliamentarian |
| -EE | trust – trustee | refuge – refugee | divorce – divorcee |
| -ER/ OR | teach – teacher | direct – director | govern – governor |
| -EER | engine – engineer | musket – musketeer | racket – racketeer |
| -IST | terror – terrorist | ideal – idealist | human – humanist |
| -STER | young – youngster | gang – gangster | spin – spinster |
Adjective Suffixes
Nouns to Adjectives
| SUFFIX | NOUN – ADJECTIVE | NOUN – ADJECTIVE | NOUN – ADJECTIVE |
| -AL | region – regional | person – personal | universe – universal |
| -ARY | custom – customary | honor – honorary | diet – dietary |
| -FUL | skill – skillful | wonder – wonderful | success – successful |
| -IC | science – scientific | base – basic | economy – economic |
| -ICAL | practice – practical | logic – logical | economy – economical |
| -ISH | fool – foolish | child – childish | self – selfish |
| -LESS | use – useless | home – homeless | power – powerless |
| -LIKE | life – lifelike | lady – ladylike | child – childlike |
| -LY | day – daily | cost – costly | friend – friendly |
| -OUS | danger – dangerous | nerve – nervous | mystery – mysterious |
| -Y | rain – rainy | fun – funny | dirt – dirty |
Verbs to Adjectives
| SUFFIX | VERB – ADJECTIVE | VERB – ADJECTIVE | VERB – ADJECTIVE |
| -ABLE | pass – passable | pay – payable | remark – remarkable |
| -IBLE | flex – flexible | sense – sensible | access – accessible |
| -ANT | please – pleasant | rely – reliant | vacate – vacant |
| -ENT | urge – urgent | differ – different | depend – dependent |
| -IVE | create – creative | attract – attractive | prevent – preventive |
| -ING | amuse – amusing | excite – exciting | surprise – surprising |
| -ED | amuse – amused | excite – excited | surprise – surprised |
| -EN | freeze – frozen |
Verb Suffixes
Adjectives to Verbs
| SUFFIX | ADJECTIVE – VERB | ADJECTIVE – VERB | ADJECTIVE – VERB |
| -ISE/-IZE | modern – modernize | central – centralize | special – specialize |
| -EN | short – shorten | deep – deepen | dark – darken |
Nouns to Verbs
| SUFFIX | NOUN – VERB | NOUN – VERB | NOUN – VERB |
| -IFY | terror – terrify | class – classify | just – justify |
| -ISE/-IZE | vandal – vandalize | victim – victimize | terror – terrorize |
Negative Prefixes
The most common negative prefixes in English are in -, un -, non -, de -, dis -, a -, anti -, im -, il -, and ir -. What determines which prefix is attached to a word to form that word’s antonym? Why unlawful, but illegal? Why unjust, but injustice? Negative prefixes come in forms that vary not only according to language derivation but also depending on the meaning and variations of the letter that follows. There are some helpful rules, however, about negative prefixes:
Un- is commonly attached to Latin derivatives that end in suffixes such as - ed and -able, to express lack or absence of something (unsatisfied). It can also refer to an action not yet taken (unopened).
In- also denotes lack of a given quality. The in- prefix (from which im -, il -, and ir - are derived) is generally the least useful of the negative prefixes, as it only goes with certain Latin-derived stems (e.g., intolerant, inarticulate, inability).
Ir- appears only before words beginning with ‘ r’ (irregular, irrelevant).
Il- is used before ‘ l ’ in words with foreign origins (illegal, illegitimate). However, there are some other ‘ le ’ words that do not take the ‘ il- ’ prefix (mislead, unleash). And there are other words with ‘ il- ’ prefixes that do not have ‘ le’ (illogical, illiterate). So, the best is to understand what the prefix means (as mentioned above) and to memorize the words that it works with.
Im- precedes ‘m’ (immaterial) and ‘p’ (impatient) with the lone example for ‘b’ (imbalance).
Note: while the above prefixes can only be used with the letters shown, the letters themselves are often used with other prefixes (unreliable, unlawful, unpatriotic).
Non- is the most useful negative prefix, as it can be attached to practically any noun, verb, adjective or adverb to create a word that describes the complete opposite of its nonnegative form. For example, ‘ nonrational ’ means “not according to rational means or rules”, while ‘ unrational ’ refers to behavior that does not conform to these norms.
A-/An- are Greek-derived prefixes which express an absence of something(atypical). A - is attached to words starting with consonants, and an - is the form for words beginning with vowels. An exception is words beginning with ‘ h’. Depending on the root word, either prefix may be used (ahistorical, anhydrous).
Anti- means “against” (antithetical, antivirus, antisubmarine, antidepressant).
De- is usually added to verbs to denote reversal of an action (dehumanize, demobilize).
Dis- is similar in some uses to de - and in other uses to un- to denote lack of (disabled) or opposition to (disapprove) something. Dislike is an exception for the “l+another vowel” rule.
Mis - always has the sense of a mistake being made (misunderstand, mispronounce).
3rd Year 6th Term
VERBALS
Неличные формы глагола
A verbal is a word formed from a verb but functioning as a different part of speech.
There are three types of verbals in English:
- infinitives
- gerunds (also known as -ing forms)
- participles (also known as -ing forms and -en/-ed forms)
The Infinitive
Инфинитив
The infinitive is the form of the verb NOT changed for person, number or tense.
Form
It is usually introduced with to (to swim, to think, to read, to be, to turn).
The negative is formed by putting not before the infinitive.
| Infinitive | Examples | |
| Active | to see | I hope to see you again. He promised not to see the girl. |
| Passive | to be seen | Such disgusting scenes are not to be seen here. |
Usage
| The to-infinitive is used | Examples |
| 1 as subject | To read much is to know much. |
| 2 predicative | To read much is to know much. |
| 3 as object | He refused to pay the bill. |
| 4 as adverbial modifier | To become a lawyer you must work hard. |
| 5 after a noun | There is a lot of work to do/to be done today. |
| 6 after an adjective, a numeral | She was happy to win the prize. He was the first to call me. |
| 7 after a question word | I don’t know what to do. |
| 8 after the verb to be | She is to see her class teacher after school. |
| 9 after certain verbs: afford, agree, want, wish, wait, etc. | He wants to become a lawyer. |
| 10 after too/enough constructions | He has got enough money to live on. |
| 11 with only to express disappointment | She came in only to find her boyfriend had left. |
| 12 in expressions: to begin with / to be honest/to tell the truth | To tell the truth, I don’t like him. |
Bare infinitive
Form – the infinitive without to.
Usage
| The bare infinitive is used | Examples |
| 1 after the auxiliary verbs do, does and did | He did not write down the answer. |
| 2 after modal verbs: can, could, should, will … | You can leave now if you want. You must remember it. |
| 3 after perception verbs: see, hear, smell, feel … | I saw Tom run out of the bank. |
| 4 after let and make But: (passive + to-infinitive) | They made him pay for the damage. He was made to pay for the damage. |
| 5 after would rather, had better | I would rather not go out tonight. I had better stay at home. |
| 6afterexcept, cannot but, can do nothing but | We could do nothing except/ butwait. |
The Gerund
Герундий
Form
The gerund is a verbal ending in - ing (think ing, sing ing, walk ing, talk ing, listen ing). It acts as a noun.
| Gerund | Examples | |
| Active | seeing | Seeing is believing. |
| Passive | being seen | She does not mind being seen to work in the restaurant. |
Usage
| The gerund is used | Examples |
| 1as subject | Reading is fun. |
| 2 as object | Your car needs washing. |
| 3 as predicative (after begin, start, go on, continue, stop, finish, be, etc.) | One of his duties is attending meetings. He stopped smoking. (Он перестал курить.) But: He stopped to smoke.(Он остановился, чтобы закурить.) |
| 4 after verbs/adjectives with prepositions: accuse of, object to, prevent from, insist on, suspect of, wait for, look forward to, give up, take to, put on, put off, keep on, be/get used to, be keen on, be interested in, be proud of, be fond of, be afraid of, etc.) | The child is fond of playing chess. We insisted on finishing these experiments. I look forward to seeing you. I am not used to going to bed late. He objected to pulling down the old house. |
| 5 after certain verbs: spend, waste, avoid etc. | He spends his free time digging the garden. |
| 6 after possessive adjectives/ noun+’s. | Do you mind my joining you on the trip? |
| 7 after go + v-ing (activities) | Let’s go shopping/ swimming/ camping. |
| 8 after be busy/ worth | He is busy doing exercise. It is worth seeing. |
| 9 after certain expressions: can’t help; can’t stand; it’s no use/good; feel like; look like; there’s no/no point in; it’s a waste of time/money; have difficulty(in); as/ like/ than etc. | There is no joking about this matter. It is a waste of time playing online games. I can’t help laughing. It was like being in the desert. She couldn’t help falling in love with him. I can’t stand being stuck in traffic jams. It’s no good/use trying to escape. |
| 10 in compound nouns | a driving lesson, a swimming pool (the pool is not swimming, it isa pool for swimming in). |