The adjective expresses the categorical semantics of property of a noun.
Adjectives are characterized by a wide combinability with the noun, by
combinability with link – words and modifying adverbs. The formal
signs of adjectives are their special affixes and the absence of declension
forms.
Qualitative adjectives denote various qualities of the noun which admit
some quantitative measure.
One of the formal signs of qualitative adjectives is their usage in degrees
of comparison.
Adjectives in English are easily substantivized forming new nouns of
different kind, with different numbers of categories.
We all know few types of comparison of adjectives: the comparative
degree and the superlative degree. On theoretical grammar we can use
one more notion – the positive degree of comparison. In English the
superlative degree has few substypes: common and elative superlative.
The latter presupposes the use of the article “a” instead of the article
“the”.
The adverb expresses a property of another property (adjective) or of the
action (verb). This part of speech is characterized by a wide variety of
quite different words with quite different meanings.
Adverbs derived from adjectives express usually an adverbial modifier of
manner. Their formal sign is the subfix “ly”.
Adverbs can be simple, derived and compound. Simple adverbs usually
have one stem. They are rather few but having functional semantics they
play a very important role in language.
Qualitative adverbs express non-graded qualities, quantitave adverbs
express qualities of different degrees of intensity.
https://www.bsu.by/cache/pdf/229543.pdf
Relative adjectives denote an attribute of an object thru a relationship to:
other objects: военное собрание (military meeting)
materials: бронзовый солдат (a bronze soldier)
time: утренняя зарядка (a morning workout)
space: московский фестиваль (a moscow festival)
action: боксерская груша (a boxing bag)
The cannot have comparative forms.(you can't say это был более московский концерт -
that was a more moscow concert
https://www.russian-plus.com/3-grammar/adjectives/3-adjectives-intro
Modern English verbs. General characteristics (word-building elements, classification into notional, auxiliary and link verbs, limitive and durative verbs, transitive and intransitive verbs, regular and irregular verbs, modal verbs, phrasal verbs, finite and non-finite forms of verbs.
Grammatically the verb is the most complex part of speech due to several factors:
the verb has an intricate structure of its grammatical categories and the verb falls
into two large lasses: finite verbs and infinite verbs. Moreover the verb is the
central part of predication and that’s why plays the crucial semantic role in the
sentence.
The verbs can be simple, derived (производные) and phrasal. The group of simple construction verbs makes the core of the vocabulary and naturally determines the usage of other verbs.
The verbs are divided into nominative and functional. There are also partial-seminative
or semi-notional verbs.The group of functional verbs is rather small but of a
great role in the contruction of speech utterances.
These are auxiliary verbs, modal verbs and link-verbs.
The class of notional verbs can be divided into actional and statal verbs. the former
express the action performed by the subject. The latter denote the state of the
subject.
The verbs can also be described according to their aspective meaning: impressive,
durative, verbs of termination and some other kinds.
A very important feature of the verb is its valency, that’s the ability to be
connected with other words in the sentence.
Valency of the verb helps construct the utterance correctly and makes it (the
utterances) meaningful. Valency falls into two types: obligatory and optional and
in this respest presupposes two types of adjuncts: complements and supplements.
https://www.bsu.by/cache/pdf/229543.pdf
По составу основной (исходной) формы английские глаголы делятся на:
1. Простые (Simple Verbs), которые состоят из одной основы и не имеют суффиксов и префиксов:
to work - работать, to play - играть, to go - идти.
2. Производные (Derived Verbs), в состав которых входят
суффиксы и префиксы:
deep - глубокий, to deepen - углубляться, simple - простой, to simplify - упрощать, to arm - вооружать, to disarm - разоружать.
3. Сложные (Compound Verbs), состоящие из двух основ, но выражающие одно понятие:
to fulfil - выполнять, to whitewash - белить, to sightsee - осматривать достопримечательности.
https://www.efl.ru/forum/threads/86363/
Transitive and intransitive verbs
A transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An intransitive verb does not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like speak, can be transitive or intransitive. Look at these examples:
transitive:
I saw an elephant.
We are watching TV.
He speaks English.
intransitive:
He has arrived.
John goes to school.
She speaks fast.
A linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It "links" the subject to what is said about the subject. Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=) or a change to a different state or place (→). Linking verbs are always intransitive (but not all intransitive verbs are linking verbs).
Mary is a teacher. (mary = teacher)
The only real difference between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their past tense and past participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.
https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-classification-main.htm
Finite verb forms show tense, person and number (I go, she goes, we went, etc.)
Non-finite verb forms do not show tense, person or number. Typically they are infinitive forms with and without to (e.g. to go, go), -ing forms and -ed forms (e.g. going, gone):
She tiptoed round the house so as not to wake anyone.
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/ru/%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0/%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F-%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0/about-verbs/finite-and-non-finite-verbs
11. The categories of tense and voice.
12. The category of mood.
13. The categories of aspect and perfect.
The study of the sentence and phrase. Their general properties(№15) and functions. The notions of predication and modality. Classification of sentences according to their structure (simple, complex, compound sentences), semi-composite sentences. The notion of an elementary(simple) sentence and its transforms.
The subject and the predicate are the main parts of the sentence as they constitute the backbone of any sentence and are the bearers of predication and modality.
https://mir.zavantag.com/other/291335/index.html
The difference between the phrase and the sentence is fundamental: the
phrase is a nominative unit which fulfils the function of polynomination denoting a
complex referent (phenomenon of reality) analyzable into its component elements
together with various relations between them; the sentence is a unit of predication
which, naming a certain situational event, shows the relation of the denoted event
towards reality. Predication establishes the relation of the named phenomena to
actual life. The general semantic category of modality is also defined by linguists
as exposing the connection between the named objects and surrounding reality.
https://window.edu.ru/catalog/pdf2txt/740/67740/41104?p_page=9
Sentences are distinguished by some peculiar properties such as: an intonation contour, predication, modality, a relative sense completion.
https://studopedia.info/7-64740.html
Two functions of sentence:
1. Nominative(one-member sentences consisting only of a nominal group, which is semantically and communicatively self-sufficient.) and
2. Predicative of which the peculiar feature of it as the main unit of speech.
https://www.bsu.by/cache/pdf/229543.pdf
Professor Blokh distinguishes 4 types of phrases [syntagms]:
1. Predicative
SP
Mary came.
2. Attributive
AN
A beautiful flower
3. Objective
VO
Build a house.
4. Adverbial
VD
Walked fast.
(Из лекций)
Sentence:
1.Simple (простое. a strictly monopridicative unit)
1.1. One-member (односоставное предложение)
1.2 Two-member
2. Composite (сложное)
(Из лекций)
Sentence Types (Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex)
Simple Sentences
- A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb.
- It expresses a single complete thought that can stand on its own.
Examples:
1. The baby cried for food.
^There is a subject and a verb that expresses a complete thought.
2. Professor Maple’s intelligent students completed and turned in their homework.
^ A simple sentence does not necessarily have to be short. It can have adjectives. In this case,
there are two verbs “completed” and “turned in.” However, the sentence expresses one
complete thought and therefore is a simple sentence.
3. Megan and Ron ate too much and felt sick.
^Although there are two subjects and two verbs, it is still a simple sentence because both
verbs share the same subjects and express one complete thought.
Compound Sentences
- A compound sentence has two independent clauses. An independent clause is a part of a
sentence that can stand alone because it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a
complete thought.
- Basically, a compound contains two simple sentences.
- These independent clauses are joined by a conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
Examples:
1. The shoplifter had stolen clothes, so he ran once he saw the police.
^Both sides of the conjunction “so” are complete sentences. “The shoplifter had stolen clothes”
can stand alone and so can “he ran once he saw the police.” Therefore, this is a compound
sentence.
2. They spoke to him in Spanish, but he responded in English.
^This is also a compound sentence that uses a conjunction to separate two individual clauses.
Complex Sentences
- A complex sentence is an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A
dependent clause either lacks a subject or a verb or has both a subject and a verb that does
not express a complete thought.
- A complex sentence always has a subordinator (as, because, since, after, although, when) or
relative pronouns (who, that, which).
Examples:
1. After eating lunch at The Cheesecake Factory, Tim went to the gym to exercise.
^ The independent clause is ‘Tim went to the gym to exercise.” The subordinating clause before
it is dependent on the main, independent clause. If one were to say “after eating lunch at The
Cheesecake Factory,” it would be an incomplete thought.
2. Opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies that privilege male
accomplishments.
^ The subject is “opinionated women” and the verb is “are given.” The first part of the sentence
“opinionated women are given disadvantages in societies” is an independent clause that
expresses a complete thought. The following “that privilege male accomplishments” is a relative
clause that describes which types of societies.
3. The woman who taught Art History 210 was fired for stealing school supplies.
^ The dependent clause in this sentence is “who taught Art History 210” because if removed, the rest of the sentence would stand as an independent clause. “Who taught Art History 210” is an adjective clause that provides necessary details about the subject, woman.
Compound-Complex Sentences
- A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause.
Examples:
1. After the two soccer players lost their game, they joined their other teammates for
lunch, and they went to the movies.
^ If we remove the dependent clause “after the two soccer players lost their game,” we have a
compound sentence. The dependent clause makes this sentence compound-complex.
2. The man believed in the system, and he knew that justice would prevail after the
murderer was sent to jail.
https://www.lamission.edu/learningcenter/docs/asc/worksheets/Grammar/Sentence%20Types.pdf
The semi-composite sentence is to be defined as a sentence with more than one predicative lines which are expressed in fusion.
https://studopedia.su/4_611_Semi-Composite-Sentence.html
Сложные предложения делятся на сложносочиненные и сложноподчененные предложения
Complex-compound
A compound-complex sentence is made up of a compound sentence and a complex sentence.
I would say these guys are properly named, wouldn't you?
Semi-composite:
1. Semi-complex
Isawhim come.
2. Semi-compound
Mary and John were present. (predicate-sharing)
Mary smiled and walked away. (subject-sharing)
(Из лекций)
A Simple Sentence has only one subject and one predicate. A compound sentence must have two or more co-ordinate clauses, each with its own subject and predicate. Examples are given below.
Climbing up the tree, he plucked some mangoes. (Simple Sentence)
He climbed up the tree and plucked some mangoes. (Compound Sentence)
Here we changed the participial phrase 'Climbing up the tree' into the clause 'He climbed up the tree' and connected it to the original clause with the coordinating conjunction and. Thus a simple sentence can be converted into a compound sentence by expanding a word or a phrase into a clause and by using the coordinating conjunction to connect the clauses.
https://www.perfectyourenglish.com/grammar/transformation-sentences-3.htm
A s imple sentence can be converted into a complex sentence by expanding a word or phrase into a subordinate clause - which can be a noun clause, an adjective clause or an adverb clause.
Noun clause
He liked my suggestion. (Simple sentence)
He liked what I suggested. (Complex sentence)
His advice did not prove successful. (Simple sentence)
What he advised did not prove successful. (Complex sentence)
Note that it is usually a noun or a noun equivalent that can be changed into a noun clause.
Adjective clause
There I saw a beautiful girl. (Simple sentence)
There I saw a girl who was beautiful. (Complex sentence)
A wounded tiger is very fierce. (Simple sentence)
A tiger that is wounded is very fierce. (Complex sentence)
You can notice that it is adjectives or adjective equivalents or appositional words or phrases that are generally converted into adjective clauses.
Adverb clauses
She was too poor to educate her children. (Simple sentence)
She was so poor that she could not educate her children. (Compound sentence)
On being challenged they ran away. (Simple sentence)
When they were challenged they ran away. (Complex sentence)
You will have noticed that it is adverb phrases and adverbs that are converted to adverb clauses.
https://www.perfectyourenglish.com/grammar/transformation-sentences-5.htm
Classification of sentences according to the purpose of utterance (declarative (affirmative, negative), imperative, interrogative and exclamatory sentences). Nominative and actual divisions of the sentence.
Professor Blokh speaks about 9 communicative types of sentances:
Declarative (повествовательные)
Interrogative (вопросительные)
Imperative (повелительные)
They are called cardinal(основные) types.
Declarative sentences (affirmative, negative)
Interrogative sentences (affirmative, negative)
Imperative sentences (affirmative, negative)
Exclamatory sentences (affirmative, negative)
The day is fine.
Doesn’t Jim sing beautifully?
Sing.
What a fine day!
(Из лекций)
Alongside of the 3 cardinal communicative types there are also 6 intermediary subtypes distinguished by mixed communicative features. The intermediary communicative types may be identified between all the three cardinal communicative correlations – statement-question, statement-inducement, inducement-question. They have grown as a result of the transference of certain characteristic features from one communicative type of sentence to another.
The first one in the classification is interrogative-declarative, i. e. declarative by its form and interrogative by its meaning, e. g.: I’d like to know what you are going to do under the circumstances.
The intermediary subtypes usually render some connotations, such as, insistency in asking for information, a request for permission to perform an action, etc.
The second subtype is declarative-interrogative, i. e. interrogative by its form and declarative by its meaning – the so-called rhetorical questions, is best seen in proverbs and maxims, e. g.: Can a leopard change his spots?
The next subtype is imperative-declarative, i. e. inducement expressed in the form of a declarative sentence. It is regularly achieved:
- by means of constructions with modal verbs, e. g.: You must take care of him.
You ought to follow the instructions. You can’t see her;
https://pandia.ru/text/79/549/19948-5.php
Intermediary communicative types:
Declarative
Declarative-Interrogative Declarative-Imperative
Interrogative-Declarative Imperative-Declarative
Interrogative Imperative
(Из лекций)
16. The simple sentence. The principal and secondary parts of a simple sentence, the ways of their expression. Extended and non-extended sentences. One-member and two-member sentences. The notion of an elementary sentence and its transforms. Obligatory and optional elements in a sentence.
17. Compound and complex sentences. Coordinative and subordinative
connection of clauses. Types of subordinate clauses. Sentences with secondary predication or semi-composite sentences.