МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ
по учебной дисциплине
ОГСЭ.03.Иностранный язык (английский)
для специальности среднего профессионального образования
38.02.05 Товароведение и экспертиза качества потребительских товаров
(заочная форма обучения)
Разработчик:
Сердюченко В.С., преподаватель иностранных языков ГПОУ "Горловский техникум пищевых технологий и торговли", специалист высшей категории
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
1. Ведение.................................................................................................................4
2.Методические указания по выполнению домашней контрольной работы..6
3.Задания контрольной работы............................................................................8
4. Перечень рекомендуемых учебных изданий, дополнительной литературы.............................................................................................................26
ВВЕДЕНИЕ
Сегодня владение иностранными языками приобретает все большее значение. Общеизвестно, что повышение качества перевода зарубежной информации является предпосылкой научно-технического прогресса и дает большой экономический эффект.
При заочном обучении в неязыковых образовательных учреждениях среднего специального образования практическое владение языком означает умение самостоятельно читать и переводить со словарем литературу на иностранном языке по специальности широкого профиля с тем, чтобы на основе приобретенных в учебном заведении знаний, умений и навыков читать иностранные тексты по специальности, извлекать из них полезную для работы информацию.
В результате освоения дисциплины обучающийся должен уметь:
- общаться (устно и письменно) на иностранном языке на профессиональные и повседневные темы;
- переводить (со словарём) иностранные тексты профессиональной направленности;
- самостоятельно совершенствовать устную и письменную речь, пополнять словарный запас.
знать:
- лексический (1200-1400 лексических единиц) и грамматический минимум, необходимый для чтения и перевода (со словарём) иностранных текстов профессиональной направленности.
Контрольная работа основана на 4 компетенциях владения иностранным языком.
Речевая компетенция - совершенствование коммуникативных умений в 4-х основных видах речевой деятельности (говорении, аудировании, чтении и письме); умений планировать свое речевое и неречевое поведение.
Языковая компетенция - овладение новыми языковыми средствами в соответствии с отобранными темами и сферами общения; увеличение объема использования лексических единиц; развитие навыков оперирования языковыми единицами в коммуникативных целях.
Социально-культурная компетенция – увеличение объема знаний о социально-культурной специфике стран изучающегося языка, совершенствование умений строить свое речевое и неречевое поведение адекватно этой специфике, формирование умений выделять общее и специфическое в культуре родной страны и страны изучаемого языка.
Компенсаторная компетенция - дальнейшее развитие умений объясняться в условиях дефицита языковых средств при получении и передаче иноязычной информации.
Учебно-познавательная компетенция – развитие общих и специальных учебных умений, позволяющих совершенствовать учебную деятельность по овладению иностранным языком, удовлетворять с его помощью познавательные интересы в других областях знаний.
Основными компонентами содержания контрольной работы по английскому языку в учреждения СПО являются: языковой (фонетический, лексический и грамматический) материал; речевой материал, тексты; знания, навыки и умения, входящие в состав коммуникативной компетенции студентов и определяющие уровень ее сформированности.
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ ПО ВЫПОЛНЕНИЮ ДОМАШНЕЙ КОНТРОЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ
Выполнение контрольной работы имеет целью более глубокое и самостоятельное изучение теоретических вопросов дисциплины, а также приобретение практических навыков и умений.
Работа должна быть оформлена грамотно, разборчиво, без сокращений слов. Способ оформления: рукописный или набранный на компьютере, студент выбирает самостоятельно. Перед каждым ответом нужно писать номер и полный текст вопроса. Ответ на новый вопрос следует начинать со следующей страницы. Для замечаний преподавателя с правой стороны следует оставлять поля.
Выполнять письменные контрольные работы следует в отдельной тетради. На обложке тетради напишите свою фамилию, инициалы, шифр, номер контрольной работы.
В конце работы приводится список использованной литературы. При написании списка литературы в качестве примера рекомендуется использовать список в конце данных методических указаний. В конце работы следует поставить подпись студента и дату выполнения работы.
Студенты, получившие контрольную работу после проверки должны внимательно ознакомиться с рецензией преподавателя и доработать отдельные вопросы, если этого требует рецензия.
Незачтённая контрольная работа выполняется студентами повторно с учётом рекомендаций рецензии и сдаётся в техникум вместе с незачтённой работой на проверку преподавателю.
Зачтённая и доработанная контрольная работа предъявляется преподавателю при сдаче экзаменов, в противном случае студенты к экзамену не допускаются.
Выбор варианта контрольной работы производится с помощью таблицы в зависимости от двух последних цифр номера личного дела (шифра) студента.
В таблице по горизонтали размещаются цифры от 0 до 9, каждая из которых - последняя цифра шифра студента. По вертикали также размещены цифры от 0 до 9, каждая из которых - предпоследняя цифра шифра студента. На пересечении горизонтальной и вертикальной линий определяют ячейку с номерами вопросов контрольной работы.
Например, шифр у студента 11012. Последние две цифры 12. Определяем вариант контрольной работы. На пересечении второго столбца по вертикали и третьей строки по горизонтали определяют ячейку с варианта с вопросами - 2,12,23,33.
Варианты контрольной работы
| Предпоследняя цифра шифра | Последняя цифра шифра | |||||||||
| З | ||||||||||
| 11 30 | ||||||||||
ЗАДАНИЯ КОНТРОЛЬНОЙ РАБОТЫ№1
1. Прочитайте текст.
SUGAR
People make sugar from, the juice of sugar-cane or the roots of beetroot.
Sugar-cane grows in hot countries, well only in a soil that has a lot of lime in it. If the soil is good, people can get three harvests a year.
Beetroot grows in cool countries. There are two kinds of beetroot: red beetroot and white one. From white beetroot people make sugar. We call it beet sugar. When the roots are ripe they are dug out and sent to the factory. There the roots are washed, cut into pieces by slicers (machines with knives). Then the pulp is carried by a conveyor to a diffuser. The juice from it flows into tanks. It boils and flows to other tanks". Then the juice goes into centrifugal machines which extract sugar from it. This is beet sugar. It is dried and often made into little oblong pieces of sugar called lumps of sugar. Finally sugar is packed in tins and boxes and sent to towns and villages.
1.1. Переведите на русский язык слова:
bееt, cane, cool, cut, dig, harvest, juice, lime, lump, ripe, soil, tin, sugar.
1.2. Ответьте письменно на вопросы:
1. What do people make sugar from?
2. Under what condition does sugar-cane grow?
3. Where does beetroot grow?
4. What kinds of beetroot do you know?
5. What beetroot is sugar made from?
1.3. Образуйте множественное число существительных, встретившихся в тексте.
1.4. Образуйте степени сравнения прилагательных, встретившихся в тексте.
1.5. Определите видовременную форму глаголов в выделенных предложениях.
2. Прочитайте текст.
WATER
Water is the commonest of all substances and without it life is impossible. It exists in three states: ice, which melts at 0 degrees Centigrade, liquid, and steam when boiling at 100°G.
Water of the rivers and lakes is called fresh water, and that of seas and oceans is sea or salty water. Pure water is rarely found in nature. It is able to dissolve substances from the air, the soil and the rocks. By sedimentation, filtration and disinfection people purify water from bacteria, turbidity, etc.
Man can live as long as ninety days without food, but he cannot live many days without water. More than half of the human body consists of water, which also forms a large part of the food we eat, especially vegetables and fruit.
2.1. Переведите на русский язык слова:
sedimentation, turbidity, steam, body, boil, common, consist, degree, dissolve, exist, fresh, liquid, purify.
2.2. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. In what states does water exist?
2. Where do we get water from?
3. Which water do we call fresh?
4. How do people purify water?
5. What part does water play in our life?
2.3. Образуйте множественное число существительных, встретившихся в тексте.
2.4. Образуйте степени сравнения прилагательных, встретившихся в тексте.
2.5. Определите видовременную форму глаголов в выделенных предложениях.
3. Прочитайте текст.
SALT
Salt is one of the most common minerals used in everyday life. Primitive people that lived mainly upon raw meat did not need salt. Meat itself retained salts. When people passed on to the agricultural stage and began to raise crops, salt became a necessity. Bread and vegetables were not only improved in taste, but salt itself was required for the body's well-being.
The fact that salt could preserve food made it the symbol of lasting quality. To offer salt to somebody at one's table was a sign of friendship.
Common or table salt consists of two elements—sodium, a bright, soft metal, which takes fire in contact with water, and of chlorine, a greenish-yellow gas. It is called sodium chloride. Salt can be dissolved in water and obtained again unchanged by evaporating the water. It forms the greater part of the dissolved material in sea water and certain lakes.
3.1. Переведите на русский язык слова:
crop, evaporate, improve, meat, need, obtain, offer, preserve, qualify, stage, taste, well - being.
3. 2. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. What did primitive people eat?
2. What food contains salt?
3. When did salt become a necessity?
4. What elements does salt consist of?
3.3. Образуйте множественное число существительных, встретившихся в тексте.
3.4. Образуйте степени сравнения прилагательных, встретившихся в тексте.
3.5. Определите видовременную форму глаголов в выделенных предложениях.
4. Прочитайте текст.
TEA
When the mistress of the house in England offers her visitors a cup of tea, she sometimes asks, "Russian or English tea?"
"Russian tea" will be served in glasses and a slice of lemon will be put into it. "English tea" means very strong tea with milk in it. Tea-drinking is quite a tradition with the English. Tea is served in almost every house nearly at the same time, at 5 o'clock in the afternoon. On the table tea-cups on saucers and tea-spoons are laid. The milk-jug and the sugar-basin are also on the table. There are small plates with bread and butter, or bread and jam, or biscuits. Tea is ready. The hostess pours the tea into cups.
"Do you take milk?" "Yes, please."
"How many lumps of sugar?" "No sugar, thank you."
4.1. Переведите на русский язык слова:
almost, drink, jug, lay, quite, pour, saucer, serve, strong, sugar - basin, tea - spoon
4.2. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. What is meant by Russian & English tea?
2. How is the table laid for the tea?
3. What do you take with a glass of tea?
4.3. Образуйте множественное число существительных, встретившихся в тексте.
4.4. Образуйте степени сравнения прилагательных, встретившихся в тексте.
4.5. Определите видовременную форму глаголов в выделенных предложениях.
5. Прочитайте текст.
COCOA AND CHOCOLATE
Chocolate and cocoa powder are made from cocoa beans. The beans are roasted and passed through stone grinding mills, which change them to a thick liquid. The liquid is passed through a press which extracts 70—80% of the cocoa butter. The rest of the butter remains in the cocoa. Then the mass is powdered and becomes cocoa.
In order to make chocolate the liquid from the grinding mill is put into a melanger. Then sugar and some cocoa butter are added. If milk chocolate is being made, milk is added. The mass is dried, heated and rolled on a stone plate for 72 hours. This process removes all unpleasant flavours. Finally the product is poured into moulds and cooled. Now it is ready.
5.1. Переведите на русский язык слова:
add, bean, flavour, grind, heat, melanger, milk, mould, powder, remove, roast, roll.
5.2. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. Describe the process of making cocoa powder.
2. How is chocolate made?
3. What kinds of chocolate do you know?
5.3. Образуйте множественное число существительных, встретившихся в тексте.
5.4. Образуйте степени сравнения прилагательных, встретившихся в тексте.
5.5. Определите видовременную форму глаголов в выделенных предложениях.
6. Прочитайте текст.
MILK
One of the most important foods for human beings in general and children in particular is milk. Milk also serves as a basis for other important foods. We have, for instance, butter and many different kinds of cheese. Then milk itself is prepared in different ways especially for children and people in poor health, all of whom need greater care and attention than people in ordinary good health do.
Milk is also used in preparation of cakes, some kinds of bread and sweets. Milk chocolate, for instance, is greatly used by the explorers and others who go far from the places where people generally live, and who must carry the food they need along with them.
When milk has been dried, it becomes very light powder which is also used by those who need food that is light in weight. Besides milk powder, condensed milk is also produced and sold in tins. There is generally some sugar in condensed milk.
6.1. Переведите на русский язык слова:
besides, care, carry, cheese, dish, different, in general, health, ordinary, particular, use, way, weight.
6. 2. Ответьте на вопросы:
What food products are made from milk?
What animals do we get milk from?
What kinds of milk do you know?
What dishes can be prepared with milk?
6.3. Образуйте множественное число существительных, встретившихся в тексте.
6.4. Образуйте степени сравнения прилагательных, встретившихся в тексте.
6.5. Определите видовременную форму глаголов в выделенных предложениях.
7. Прочитайте текст.
CEREALS
A typical grain is wheat which is the staple food in many countries. Wheat grows in the field. Combines are machines which cut the wheat and thresh the grain. Grains are the wheat's seeds. When the grain is separated from the husk, it is stored in barns, in silos or in elevators. Then wheat is transported to the flour-mills. There it is ground into flour. Bread and cakes are made out of this flour.
Grain is also used in brewing. It may also be pounded or milled and then sold in the form of groats. Groats are used in garnishes and can make a separate dish—porridge or gruel (kasha).
Other important cereals grown In the USA are: maize, (which is called corn in the U.S.A.), oats, barley, rye, rice, and buckwheat.
7.1. Переведите на родной язык слова:
barley, barn, brew, buckwheat, cereal, flour, garnish, drain, gruel, husk, oats, porridge, to pound, rye, seed.
7.2. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. What cereal is the staple food in your republic?
2. Where is grain stored?
3. What other cereals do you know?
7.3. Образуйте множественное число существительных, встретившихся в тексте.
7.4. Образуйте степени сравнения прилагательных, встретившихся в тексте.
7.5. Определите видовременную форму глаголов в выделенных предложениях.
8. Прочитайте текст
PASTA
The best known to you pastas are macaroni, vermicelli and spaghetti. There are also many other pastas which are called by Italian names given according to its shape or the district the pastas come from. Other countries, apart from Italy, have their forms of pasta, but in Italy it is part of the staple diet especially of working people. The making of pasta has been known for many centuries. The earliest mention of dough of this kind is found in Chinese and Japanese cook books dating 3000—3550 B.C. But it was often made with rice instead of wheat flour.
Pasta can be made into a very substantial and tasty dish or combined with meat or fish in many different dishes. The smaller pasta such as vermicelli or the small alphabet letters are usually used as garnishes in soups.
Most pasta is made from a pure wheat flour which is mixed with water into an elastic dough, it is then cut or twisted into various shapes and sizes and dried until crisp and hard. Rice and potato flour can be used to form a pasta. In some cases pasta is mixed with eggs.
8.1. Переведите на русский язык слова:
according to, course, crisp, dough, hard, mix, pasta, plain, shape, substantial, such as, various.
8.2. Ответьте на вопросы:
What is pasta to the Italian working people?
What books where the first to mention pasta?
What is pasta made from?
8.3. Образуйте множественное число существительных представленных в тексте.
8.4. Образуйте степени сравнения прилагательных, встретившихся в тексте.
8.5. Определите видовременную форму глаголов в выделенных предложениях.
9. Прочитайте текст.
VEGETABLES
Vegetables take the larger part in our everyday fare. They are important not only for their nutritional value but for the influence they have on the whole process of digestion. They are rich in vitamins, carbohydrates and minerals. Vegetables and fruit are the main source of vitamin C. It should be noted that they differ greatly in their composition.
Potato is a "starchy food". Cabbage is rich in vitamin C, carrot in vitamin A. Onion and garlic can not only enhance the flavour of a dish but they are also known for their antibiotic properties. Radish, beetroot, horse-radish and lettuce intensify activity of the pancreas.
Vegetables are recognized practically by the cuisine of every country and are eaten not only as garnishes and accompaniment to meat and fish but as separate dishes too. The best to cook are of course fresh vegetables but there are also pickled, dried, frozen and tinned ones. Remember that vegetables should not be cooked long before they are served because a great deal of vitamins is ruined especially when heated.
9.1. Переведите на русский язык слова:
cabbage, carrot, differ, cuisine, digestion, enhance, fare, garlic, influence, horse - radish, nutritional.
9.2. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. What vegetables do you know?
2. What are vegetables important for?
3. What are they rich in?
4. What vegetables are best for cooking?
5. What vegetables are the source of vitamin D (C, A)?
9.3. Образуйте множественное число существительных представленных в тексте.
9.4. Образуйте степени сравнения прилагательных, встретившихся в тексте.
9.5. Определите видовременную форму глаголов в выделенных предложениях.
10. Прочитайте текст.
POTATOES
A mainstay of our diet since the beginning of the 18th century, when Peter I brought them to Russia; this is one vegetable that can be used at every meal not only as a savoury but also as a sweet. Potato is an excellent source of energy containing starch (up to 24%), carbohydrates, protein, calcium, vitamins B and C. There are more than 40 named varieties of potato grown in Europe. But we usually know them as reds and whites. Reds are good for boiling, roasting and baking. Whites are excellent for chipping and frying. They are baked and mashed well too.
Incorrect storing and cooking destroy a lot of their nutritional value. Potatoes should be stored in a dark, cool, airy place. Never store them in the refrigerator. Washed potatoes do not store as well as those that are unwashed. The best way to cook potatoes and retain the most food value is by pressure cooking or cooking in their skins. You should remember the following points: store correctly, peel thinly, cook with care, season to taste and serve hot.
10.1. Переведите на русский язык слова: air, bake, bring, destroy, mash, mainstay, meal, peel, plum, savoury, to season, skin.
10.2. Ответьте на вопросы:
1. Who brought the potatoes to Russia?
2. What dishes can be prepared, from potatoes?..
3. What nutrients does potato contain?
4. Where should potatoes be stored?
10.3. Образуйте множественное число существительных, представленных в тексте.
10.4. Образуйте степени сравнения прилагательных, встретившихся в тексте.
10.5. Определите видовременную форму глаголов в выделенных предложениях.
11. Трансформируйте прямую речь в косвенную:
1. Mary said "I like music".
2. Mr. White asked "When is Mr Orion arriving in Odessa?"
3. Viktor said "Please, give me the contract".
12. Трансформируйте прямую речь в косвенную:
1. The manager asked "Will you ring me later?"
2. She said "The container will be ready for dispatch by 18th November".
3. John said "Please type this letter, Mary".
13. Трансформируйте прямую речь в косвенную:
1. Нe said "I am very busy".
2. Victor said "I enjoyed my visit to England in February".
3. She said "Ring me later".
14. Трансформируйте прямую речь в косвенную:
1. Simon said "He stay in Kiev for two weeks".
2. John said "I've already done it".
3. The secretary said "I sent the letter yesterday".
15. Трансформируйте прямую речь в косвенную:
1. Victor asked me "Did you send a letter?"
2. John said "Please type this letter, Mary".
3. The manager asked "Will you ring me later?"
16. Трансформируйте прямую речь в косвенную:
1. Mr. Brown said to us "Do not send the invoice by fax".
2. John asked me "How long have you been working for TST Systems?"
3. Не said: “I will go to Moscow tomorrow”.
17. Трансформируйте прямую речь в косвенную:
1. Nick said "I've come to the States where I start my company in 1979".
2. The secretary said "The account will be ready tomorrow".
3. Нe said "I am very busy".
18. Трансформируйте прямую речь в косвенную:
1. Peter asked "Tom, when did you return from Russia?"
2. Mr. Climenko ordered "Everybody must come to work by 8 am."
3. John said "I've already done it".
19. Трансформируйте прямую речь в косвенную:
1. The secretary asked Mr. Cartwrright "Will you like something to drink?"
2. The speaker said "I am going to discuss with you some details of our agreement".
3. She said "Ring me later".
20. Трансформируйте прямую речь в косвенную:
1. Mr. Pospelov asked "Have you ever been to Kiev, Mr. Cartwright?"
2. Mary said "I have finished the school this year".
3. John said "Please type this letter, Mary".
21. Переведите предложения, употребляя модальные глаголы и обороты:
1. Он должен быть в своем офисе.
2. Ты не должен этого делать.
3. Можете ли вы сказать свой номер?
22. Переведите предложения, употребляя модальные глаголы и обороты:
1. Это должно быть мистер Смит.
2. Ты умеешь печатать?
3. Можно войти?
23. Переведите предложения, употребляя модальные глаголы и обороты:
1. Вы можете прийти в 6:00.
2. Он должен подписать контракт.
3. Не смей курить в комнате!
24. Переведите предложения, употребляя модальные глаголы и обороты:
1. Не может быть, что она это сделала.
2. Я могу говорить по-английски.
3. Можно посмотреть ваши права?
25. Переведите предложения, употребляя модальные глаголы и обороты:
1. Платить сейчас?
2. Вы можете заплатить позже.
3. Умеешь ли ты читать?
26. Переведите предложения, употребляя модальные глаголы и обороты:
1. Тебе не стоит так много есть.
2. Это видимо были они.
3. Ты должен это сделать немедленно.
27. Переведите предложения, употребляя модальные глаголы и обороты:
1. Можно заказать главное блюдо тоже?
2. Менеджер должен вот - вот подойти.
3. Он, видимо, спит.
28. Переведите предложения, употребляя модальные глаголы и обороты:
1. Эта книга может быть очень ценной.
2. Это письмо должно быть напечатано к 3 часам.
3. Я не могу остаться после работы сегодня.
29. Переведите предложения, употребляя модальные глаголы и обороты:
1. Могу ли я обсудить цену товара прямо сейчас?
2. Вероятно, он приедет из Киева на этой неделе.
3. Мы должны написать эти упражнения.
30. Переведите предложения, употребляя модальные глаголы и обороты:
1. Тебе не стоит так много есть.
2. Это видимо были они.
3. Ты должен это сделать немедленно.
31. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст. Задайте все типы вопросов к предложению: Marketing has become a key factor in the success of western businesses.
What is Marketing?
Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, price, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives.
People have been trying to sell things for years, and you've learned something about their techniques - advertisements, price markdowns, special contests, tantalizing displays of merchandise. But despite marketing's high visibility, the term itself is difficult to define. The American Marketing Association recently devoted a year of study to the question and evaluated 25 different definitions before reaching a consensus on the meaning of the word. According to its definition, marketing is planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchange that satisfy individual and organizational objectives. Marketing is a broad term, not limited to profit-making businesses alone; it encompasses the efforts of nonprofit organizations to "sell" intangibles.
What does the term marketing really mean? Many people mistakenly think of it as advertising or selling. However, advertising or selling are only two of several marketing functions, and not necessarily the most important ones.
Marketing can be defined as any human activity which is directed at satisfying needs and wants by creating and exchanging goods and value with others.
Marketing has become a key factor in the success of western businesses. Today's companies face stiff competition and the companies which can best satisfy customer needs are those which will survive and make the largest profits.
For an exchange to take place, four conditions must exist. First, an exchange requires participation by two or more individuals, groups, or organizations. Second, each party must possess something of value that the other party desires. Third, each must be willing to give up its "something of value" to receive the "something of value" held by the other. The objective of a marketing exchange is receiving something that is desired more than what is given up to get it, that is, a reward in excess of costs. Fourth, the parties to the exchange must be able to communicate with each other to make their "something of value" available. Note, though, that an exchange will not necessarily take place just because these four conditions exist. However, even if there is no exchange, marketing activities still have occurred. The "somethings of value" held by the two parties are most often products and / or financial resources such as money or credit. When an exchange occurs, products are traded for either other products or financial resources.
32. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст. Задайте все типы вопросов к предложению: Department stores often use the markup pricing method of setting prices.
Pricing
"How much is it?" This question is repeated many times a day in stores around the world. It shows that consumers and organizations will buy many things if the price is right. One can design the finest products in the world, but if the price is perceived as too high or too low, the effort may be for nothing. Pricing decisions, therefore, should be completely integrated with product decisions, because price is part of the product offer, just as the package and the brand are. Price is one way in which the seller can differentiate his or her offer from those of competitors.
Every company must translate its own particular objectives into spe cific prices for specific products. Three methods for doing so are markup pricing, breakeven analysis, and market-based pricing. But before applying any of these three methods, a company should analyze its costs.
Two types of costs are associated with producing a product: fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs - including rent payments, utility bills, insurance premiums, and administrative expenses - are not affected by the number of products sold. Regardless of whether a company sells 10 units or 100 units, the rent on the building must be paid on time. Variable costs, on the other hand, do depend on the volume sold. They include raw materials, labor used in production, and supplies consumed in producing the product. The total cost of operating the business is the sum of the fixed and variable costs.
Different businesses have different cost structures. Airlines, for example, have high fixed costs and low variable costs. The cost of flying a plane is the same whether there are 3 passengers or 300 So the more seats the airline fills, the more money it makes. Businesses of this type are said to be "volume sensitive," because their profits depend heavily on how much is sold. Other businesses with low fixed costs and high variable costs are said to be "price sensitive". Their profits depend more on price than volume. Department stores, for example, can increase or decrease the stock they keep on the racks to match trends in demand. Although they have a certain amount of overhead to support, they are most con cerned about getting a good price for their merchandise.
Department stores and other retailers often use the markup pricing method of setting prices. Markup is usually defined as the difference between the cost of an item and its selling price. In modern merchandising, firms generally express this difference in terms of the markup percentage.
33. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст. Задайте все типы вопросов к предложению: Each day consumers receive mini-catalogues in their newspapers or in the mail.
Advertising
Advertising is any paid form of non-personal presentation and pro motion of products, services, or ideas by an identifiable individual or organization. It flourishes mainly in free-market, profit-oriented countries. It is one of the most important factors in accelerating the distribution of products and helping to raise the standard of living. Advertising cannot turn a poor product or service into a good one. But what it can do - and does - is to create awareness about both old and new products and services. So three main objectives of advertising are: (1) to produce knowledge about the product or service; (2) to create preference for it; and (3) to stimulate thought and action about it.
Most people do not understand the difference among promotional tool such as advertising, personal selling, publicity, and word-of-mouth. Advertising is limited to paid, non-personal communication through various media by organizations and individuals who are in some way identified in the advertising message. Word of mouth is not a form of advertising because it does not go through a medium, it is not paid for. Personal selling is face to face communication and does not go through a medium; thus it is not advertising. Note also that advertising may be used by anyone, including non-profit organizations. Furthermore, advertising is different from propaganda in that the promoter is identified.
People have the false impression that advertising is not very informative. But the number one medium, newspapers, is full of information about products, prices, features, etc. Do you know that businesses spend more on direct mail than on radio and magazines? Direct mail (the use of mailing lists to reach an organization's most likely customers) is also very informative and a tremendous shopping aid for consumers. Each day consumers receive mini-catalogues in their newspapers or in the mail that tell them what is on sale, where, at what price, for how long, and more. Thus advertising is informative.
The public benefits greatly from advertising expenditures. First, we learn about new products, new features, sale items, and more. But we also benefit from free radio and TV and subsidized newspapers and magazines. In short, advertising not only informs us about products but pays for us to watch TV and get the news from magazines and newspapers. Figure 3 describes the advantages and disadvantages of various advertising media to the advertiser.
34. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст. Задайте все типы вопросов к предложению: A private company is usually founded by a small group of people who know each other.
Setting up a Business
If a person wishes to launch a new business, he has to make some preparatory steps.
The first step is the selection of an appropriate legal form. In various countries these forms differ. But usually they are as follows: a limited liability company, a partnership and a sole proprietor.
There is a basic difference between these forms. A limited liability company is a legal entity (legal person). In case of a bankruptcy, it has to reimburse (cover) its debts with all its assets, but the creditors cannot seize the assets owned by the company's shareholders.
Sole proprietors or partners do not form a legal entity and have unlimited liability. If their business goes bankrupt, they have to reimburse the debts not only with the firm's assets but also with their personal belongings: money, houses, cars, etc.
For this reason, most businesses are set up as limited liability companies. The name of such a company ends with "Limited" in the UK or Canada and with "Inc.", "Corp." or "LLC" in the USA.
A limited liability company may be private or public. A private company is usually founded by a small group of people who know each other and intend to do business together. A private company cannot sell its shares to the public and if it the business is not successful the founders lose their own money only.
A public company's shares are traded on the stock market and may be purchased by millions of people all over the world. These shareholders are not aware of the company's day to day performance and must rely on the professionalism of the company's managers and their reports. If the management is poor or in case of the managers 'fraud, the shareholders may lose billions of dollars.
Many countries have special regulatory bodies to supervise public companies, such as the US Securities Exchange Commission. Yet, corporate disasters sometimes happen. One of the most recent examples is the bankruptcy of Enron Corporation, a giant supplier of energy resources in the Western part of the United States.
The second step in setting up a business is the preparation of various documents, such as: Memorandum of Association, Articles of Association and Resolution of the founders on the appointment of directors. The Memorandum contains the conditions, on which the founders agree to set up this business, and the Articles set out the principles of the company's formation and management: its name, objectives, share capital, rules of management, etc. The founders have to make the initial investment and may either hire the directors of the company or appoint themselves as the directors.
Every new business is to be registered with the official company register. The UK has such registration offices in London and in Edinburgh, while in the USA each of the 50 states has its own register.
35. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст. Задайте все типы вопросов к предложению: The company's top executives must control the efficiency of the company's various departments.
Company performance
Any business is set up to make profit. But the founders sometimes do not have enough experience or make serious mistakes, which result in losses. The financial results of the company's operations can be seen from its financial reports.
There are at least three reasons for preparing such reports. First, every government needs to collect taxes and therefore requires detailed information on the company's performance, revenues and expenses. Second, the shareholders need to know, whether the company's management is professional enough, and ask for confirmation with facts and figures. Third, the company's top executives must control the efficiency of the company's various departments and the input of each department in the company's operational results. The reports prepared by the company's accounting department are often verified by an auditor, which is an independent public accountant. The auditor has to confirm that the reports comply with legal requirements and reflect the company's actual performance.
There are a lot of reports submitted annually, semi-annually and quarterly. The most important one is the balance sheet, which describes the company's assets and liabilities as on the last date of each year. The assets are the values, which the company owns: money, buildings, equipment, raw materials, computer hardware and software, trademarks. The liabilities specify what the company owes, such as: share capital, credits received from banks and suppliers, other debts. If the amount of assets is higher than that of the liabilities, the company has profit. If the liabilities are higher than the assets, the company has losses. In the latter case they say that the company is "in the red".
Money transfers between the company and its partners during the year are shown on the statement of cash flows. Cash is the most liquid asset, which is as important for the company's activities as blood for a human body. If a company has huge fixed assets (land, buildings, equipment) but does not have enough money, it is a sign of financial problems.
36. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст. Задайте все типы вопросов к предложению: Strategy depends on long-term and short-term objectives and prospects.
Business Strategy
Every company or firm develops its strategy, its overall method of achieving its objectives. The strategy must be very flexible, because only a flexible strategy permits taking into account market conditions, which are constantly changing.
Strategy depends on long-term and short-term objectives and prospects. The long-term objective is always profits. But a company may be ready to cut its profits for some time to have a greater share of the market to sell its products. Greater market share means greater profits in the future. So, a company may put gaining market share as its short-term objective. To achieve this, the company has to reduce its prices. But then, the margins will be lower. Margins are the differences between what it costs to manufacture a product and the price at which it is sold. Lowering the margins means cutting the profits.
In this case, in order to increase profits over the long term, the company needs to increase production. Gaining market share allows it to increase production, and that increase cuts the unit cost (ie, the cost to manufacture one unit of what the company produces).
Thus, gaining market share provides the company with a long-term prospect of increasing profits.
On the other hand, increasing production may cut profits as well, because the increased production requires new investments into machinery and technology.
The strategy, then, has to be oriented in two directions - the market and the manufacturing process. If we focus on the market, then the strategy is to gain market share. If we focus on manufacture as a source of profitability, then the quality of products should be improved. In that case, prices may be raised as well, in their turn raising the profits.
But this strategy does not work well if the market is competitive. Price increases, whatever the quality, may result in a drop in sales. A firm that does not increase prices, or that even reduces them, adapts to the market more easily.
To reduce costs without increasing (or even reducing) prices, companies often have to sub-contract some of their production. That means job losses in the company itself, though the remaining jobs become more stable and secure.
It may be said that developing a sound and flexible strategy is very difficult, because even strategy has its advantages and disadvantages. Many factors have to be taken into account.
37. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст. Задайте все типы вопросов к предложению: The competitiveness of a firm depends on the quality of its products.
Competition
Competition is the most important factor in determining a company's strategy, for instance, whether or not to choose gaining market share as your immediate objective. It is said that a firm is competitive if it stands well on the market when compared with other firms.
The competitiveness of a firm depends, first of all, on the quality, attractiveness, and reliability of its products. Quality and reliability are long-term assets, but it is attractiveness that helps to sell new products. "Attractiveness" refers to how attractively a product is presented to: he customers.
Another factor is the price - whether it is high, medium, or low. Then profitability must also be taken into consideration. The more profitable the production process is, the more competitive the firm is.
Heavy investments in development and technology also help to overtake and even surpass competitors. And the last, but not the least, is the significance of the firm's market share, the duration of its presence on the market, and its reputation.
All these factors are interdependent. For example, the turnover of the firm increases when prices are lowered, and thereby the firm's market share increases as well.
But with cutting prices, profitability is lowered, as is also the firm's annual return. A firm can have higher prices and still have a steady hold on the market thanks to its reputation for quality and reliability of its products. So, reputation is also a part of market value.
This means that you cannot determine how competitive the firm is if you look at competitiveness from the viewpoint of one factor only. All factors must be taken into consideration.
38. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст. Задайте все типы вопросов к предложению: Advertising is directed towards a mass audience.
Promotion
The primary objectives of promotion are to inform consumers (potential customers) of the existence of certain goods and services, to demonstrate their advantages (bundle of benefits), and to persuade the consumers to buy them.
There are different promotional approaches. The simplest is personal selling. This involves personal communication with potential customers, with the aim of selling them the products or services you have to offer. Usually the personal sales approach is most effective when customers already know about the product or service, and your purpose is simply to convince them to buy it.
Sales promotions are usually short-term. For instance, you have opened a store and want to attract customers to it. You announce that in your store, for one month, everything will be sold at half-price. People will definitely come during that month, and then probably come again looking for good bargains. And after that, you hope, they will get used to coming to your store.
Special sales promotions may also be used when a new product is launched into the market. For a certain time, such as one or two months, it may be sold at half its price or even less, to encourage as many people as possible to buy it, recognize its value, and tell their friends about it. This makes the general public want the product.
Another promotional approach is publicity. This includes news stories in newspapers or on TV about a new business venture, or its employees, or new products. Probably even more important than that, though, is what is called word-of-mouth information, as one satisfied customer tells another. Such publicity stimulates interest in the business, its products, and services and encourages people to buy them.
The most important tool used for promotion, however, is advertising. Advertising is paid and non-personal. It is directed towards a mass audience and, as a rule, is developed by specialized advertising agencies with which businesses make agreements or contracts. There are several media used for advertising: newspapers, magazines, radio, television, or billboards. Frequently letters, prospectuses, or catalogues are mailed directly to potential customers. There are other methods of advertising, but advertising through mass media, billboards, and direct mail are the most common and efficient.
39. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст. Задайте все типы вопросов к предложению: Many producers now prefer to use two channels of distribution at once.
Distribution
The route the product takes to get from the manufacturer to the consumer is called distribution. Distribution may take several channels (distribution channels). The simplest of these is called direct distribution or a direct channel. For instance, if you grow flowers in your garden and then sell them yourself in the city market, that is direct distribution.
But large firms find it difficult to do it this way. Some of them sell their products through a single intermediary (or middleman) - one or more retailers. That is called a single intermediary distribution channel. Larger firms often avoid dealing with many retailers, but sell their goods to a wholesaler. The wholesaler in turn, sells the goods to various retailers, and from retailers they reach the consumers. This system is called double intermediary distribution. It is more convenient for large firms, even though they may lose some profit since each middleman raises the price of the product to gain her / his own profit. So, the price paid by the customer is much higher than the cost of producing the product. Customers buy less than they would if the price were lower, so retailers buy less from the wholesalers, and wholesalers cut back their orders from the producers. Thus, the producer eventually loses profit that could have been gained otherwise.
For that reason many producers now prefer to use two channels of distribution at once (simultaneous dual channels) - direct as well as double intermediary distribution. This combination is seen when a company opens its own store in which goods are sold at the producer's prices, and are, therefore, much cheaper. Such stores are called "outlets" or "factory outlets". But even a large firm cannot sell all its products in this way, as the expenses for organizing and maintaining so many factory outlets would be too great. So, the traditional method of selling products through wholesalers and retailers is also used.
Thus, there are four most common methods of distribution: direct, single intermediary, double intermediary, and simultaneous dual distribution.
Two important questions in distribution are by whom and how the products will be transported to middlemen and / or customers, and by whom and how they will be stored. Shipment and storage raise the cost and the price of the product.
40. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст. Задайте все типы вопросов к предложению: A company uses the intermittent production process when the products have already been ordered by customers.
Production
Production requires raw materials (the supplies from which the products are made), machinery and / or tools (the instruments used to make the products from the raw materials), and workers (people who operate the machinery and use the tools to make the products). A production process can be organized as either continuous or intermittent.
In continuous production the same product is manufactured for a long period of time. All machinery is adjusted to produce this product. It is often done on an assembly line, which means standardizing the product. That is why most consumer goods are standardized. Continuous production is possible if the volume of the product produced is large because setting and adjusting machinery is very expensive. The larger the volume of goods produced, the greater the profits earned. And a large volume also requires standardization. However, a standardized product can only have a few variants of model, style, and design. That is why all cars that are mass-produced by the same company look alike, and models change quite slowly.
Continuous production is not very flexible, but for many products no other type of production will work well because these products are manufactured for a large number of people. Examples of items produced by continuous production include popular cars, paper, and everyday consumer appliances.
In intermittent production, on the other hand, only a small number of the same type of item is produced, and not for long. Then the production of that particular product is stopped, and a new item is manufactured. That means resetting or readjusting the machinery every time a different job is done. Thus, intermittent production, unlike continuous production, i