Many MOVEMENT verbs fall within several subdomains. This double/multiple membership may be accounted for on the following grounds:
a) The meaning component focalised
b) The genus of the lexeme
c) The metaphorical extension of the verb
Let us examine each of these factors.
2.1. Focalization of a meaning component
We have used Dik’s (1997a) pragmatic functions of Focus and Topic to account for some instances of polysemy in the semantic field of MOVEMENT. These functions specify the information status of the constituents of the predicate within the communicative setting in which they occur, and they are assigned to the constituents after the assigning of semantic and syntactic functions. The Topic is the entity about which the predication predicates something in the setting in question, whereas the Focus refers to the most relevant information in the setting:
(1) As for Mary (Focus), I don’t care for her (Topic).
The application of such functions to the paradigmatic description of the lexicon is based on the organization of the lexicon at three levels: domain, subdomain and lexeme. In consonance with this idea, we may formulate various levels of focalization:
Level of focalization 1: Domain
Level of focalization 2: Subdomain
Levels of focalization 3, 4,...: Lexeme
A domain stands for the level of focalization number 1. It performs the function of Focus in that it represents one of the basic areas of meaning.
A subdomain represents the level of focalization number 2 in that it focuses on an area of meaning within a domain.
The following levels of focalization are formulated at lexeme-level. This means that the lexemes of a subdomain represent different levels of focalization based on the meaning hierarchies within the subdomain.
What is most relevant is that what is Focus on a level becomes Topic on the level below. Then a domain, which performs the function of Focus on the level of focalization number 1, becomes topic at subdomain-level in that it presents the given information, since all the subdomains of MOVEMENT lexicalize the concept of movement. Therefore, the archilexeme of the lexical field, move, which performs the function of Focus at domain-level in that it codifies the nuclear meaning of the domain, becomes Topic at subdomain-level, since it is the definiens of the archilexeme of each subdomain.
Similarly, a subdomain, which acts as Focus on the level of focalization number 2, becomes Topic at lexeme-level, since all the lexemes in the subdomain share the nuclear information formalised by the subdomain. Then, as we move down in the semantic hierarchy which characterizes the internal structure of each subdomain, what is Focus in the meaning definition of the archilexeme (level of focalization number 3) becomes Topic in the meaning definition of its hyponyms (level of focalization number 4). For example, if we take the subdomain analysed above, To move down, the definiens “to move down” acts as Focus in the definition of fall (the archilexeme), and as Topic in the definition of plunge, plummet and come down, the function of Focus being performed by the semantic parameters of manner and place in that they individuate the members of the subdomain.
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Let us now consider the functions of Topic and Focus in the case of lexemes belonging to several subdomains. Here the function of Focus applies to a particular meaning component, which thus becomes especially relevant. The verbs whizz and zoom involve quick movement, thus belonging to the subdomain To move quickly. But they can also denote movement through the air:
(2) The bullets whizzed past.
Then, these verbs belong to the subdomain To move quickly or To move through the air depending on which parameter is highlighted, whether manner or medium.
Similarly, the verbs circle and whirl refer to circular movement in the air. If the manner component is focalized, then the verbs fall in the subdomain To move in a circular manner. If the focus is on the medium, then the verbs belong to the subdomain To move through the air.
The table below shows the double membership of these verbs.
VERB | FOCUS | DIMENSION | MEANING |
whizz zoom circle whirl | Manner | To move quickly To move in a circular manner | To move (an engine/device) very quickly with a loud whistling noise To move (a vehicle/an aircraft) very quickly with a loud buzzing/humming noise To move in a circular manner in the air To turn round in the air very quickly |
whizz zoom circle whirl | Medium | To move through the air | To move very quickly through the air with a loud whistling noise To move very quickly through the air with a loud noise To fly around in circles To move very quickly in a circular manner through the air |
Genus of the lexeme
Many verbs describe generic movement. Verb membership is then determined by the semantic parameter of medium or direction, or by the parameter specifying the nature of the subject/object.
The table below presents the verbs whose membership is influenced by the medium parameter.
VERB | MEDIUM | DIMENSION | MEANING |
dart | Air Land | To move through the air To move quickly using one’s feet | To fly suddenly and quickly (insects) To run suddenly |
dive plunge | Air | To move down through air To move down through air To move downwards | To move down through air quickly and steeply To move down through air suddenly a long way To fall suddenly a long way from a high position |
dive plunge | Water | To move in/down below the surface of a liquid To cause sb/sth to move in/down below the surface of a liquid | To move head-first down into water To cause sth to move down into water quickly and violently |
sink | Air Water/ Liquid/ Substance | To move down through air To move in/down below the surface of a liquid | To move down through air To move down below the surface of a liquid/ soft substance |
glide | Water Air Land | To move over liquid To move through the air To move smoothly | To move (boat) quietly and smoothly across water To fly quietly To move quietly and smoothly in an effortless way |
The verb dart describes sudden movement in air and on land:
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(3) He darted across the room.
(4) Bees were darting from one flower to another.
The verbs dive, plunge and sink designate downward movement in air and water:
(5) She plunged into the swimming-pool.
(6) The falcon plunged towards its prey.
Sink, as the general term, denotes movement in a wider variety of contexts:
(7) Helen sank into water/mud/an armchair.
However, we postulate that the verbs dart, dive and sink prototypically describe movement in a given medium: dart is prototypically associated with air, and dive and sink with water. Our claim is supported by the fact that the medium parameter need not be syntactically present:
(8) She dived from the bridge and rescued the drowning child.
(9) The aircraft-carrier, hit by a torpedo, sank at once.
Further, as we will show below, sink has a metaphorical projection onto FEELING, which codifies the metaphor Emotion = Liquid (Goatly 1997):
(10) When he crashed, his heart sank at the thought that he might die.
Finally, glide refers to quiet/smooth movement in a wide range of contexts (water, air, land):
(11) The cruiser glided across the sea.
(12) An owl glided over the fields.
(13) The snake glided towards its prey.
As mentioned above, the domain of MOVEMENT is marked by the semantic parameter of direction, which can determine verb membership. The lexemes jump, vault, leap, hop and spring are subsumed under various subdomains depending on whether they denote forward or upward/downward movement over an obstacle:
VERB | DIRECTION | DIMENSION | MEANING |
Jump Vault Leap Hop Spring | Forwards | To move forwards quickly/suddenly | To move forwards quickly using your legs To jump onto sth with your hands on it To jump energetically a long distance To jump on one foot (sb)/with both feet (birds/small animals) To jump suddenly |
Jump Vault Leap | Over sth | To move across/over/ through | To move over sth quickly using your legs To jump over sth with your hands on it To jump over sth energetically |
Jump Spring Hop | Up/Down | To move up/down using one’s feet | To move up/down quickly using one’s feet To jump suddenly To jump on one leg |
(14) Robert jumped one metre/over the fence/out of the shadow.
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(15) Carol sprang at him/to her feet.
Finally, as shown below, verb membership can also be determined by the parameter describing the nature of the subject or object.
ARGUMENT | SEMANTIC SCOPE | VERB | DIMENSION | MEANING |
Human/ Object | shake tremble quiver | To move from side to side/back and forth/up and down repeatedly | To move quickly from side to side/ up and down To shake un-controllably/ slightly To shake slightly | |
Part of the body | shake tremble quiver | To move one’s body | To move one’s body quickly from side to side/up and down To shake un-controllably/slightly To shake slightly | |
Subject | Human Boat | sail | To move towards a place To move over liquid | To travel to a place by ship To move (boat) over the sea |
Object | rise fall | To move upwards To move downwards | To move upwards through air To move down from a high position/the sky/a tree | |
Vehicle/ aircraft | plunge plummet | To move in/downwards below the surface of a liquid To move downwards through air | To move (vehicle) below the surface of water To move down through air very quickly | |
Human | rise fall plunge plummet | To move one’s body by raising it To move to the ground | To stand up (fml) To move to the ground from force of weight / loss of balance To fall suddenly a long way from a high position To fall very quickly from a high position | |
Object | Object | swing lift raise bend | To move from side to side/back and forth/up and down repeatedly To cause stb/sth to move up To move in a different direction | To move regularly from side to side/back and forth To cause sb/sth to move up To lift sth To turn in a curve/angle |
Part of the body | swing lift raise bend | To move a part of one’s body | To move regularly from side to side/back and forth To move a part of one’s body upwards (esp. head/arm/leg/foot) To move a part of one’s body upwards To move a part of one’s body downwards |
The verbs shake, tremble and quiver may be found with a subject argument semantically characterized as human or as concrete. But they can also take an object denoting a part of the body via the metaphor Body part = Human (Goatly 1997):
(16) Mark was so nervous that his knees were shaking.
Sail typically occurs with a subject semantically characterized as boat. Its use with a human agent results from a metonymical process (content for receptacle):
(17) They sailed the Mediterranean.
Rise designates upward movement of both human and concrete entities, but the prototypical argument is human, as shown in the restricted use of rise with human subjects when it describes body movement:
(18) She rose to greet me.
Fall, plunge and plummet, which denote downward movement, may also occur with human and concrete entities:
(19) He fell off the horse.
(20) The vase fell from her hand.
Lastly, the verbs swing, lift, raise and bend take an object semantically marked as object or part of the body:
(21) She lifted her head when I came in.
(22) The suitcase is too heavy for him to lift.