The functions of the infinitive in the sentence




Week 6

 

Text: “Employment”

Grammar: The Infinitive

Listening and discussion: Text “The USA.Political System”

Text. Employment

Since individuals typically earn their incomes from working for companies whose requirements are constantly changing, it is quite possible that at any given time not all members of a country's potential work force will be able to find an employer that needs their labor. This would be less problematic in an economy in which such individuals had unlimited access to resources such as land in order to provide for themselves, but when the ownership of the bulk of its productive capacity resides in relatively few hands, most individuals will be dependent on employment for their economic well-being. It is typical for true capitalist economies to have rates of unemployment that fluctuate between 3% and 15%. Some economists have used the term " natural rate of unemployment " to describe this phenomenon.

Depressed or stagnant economies have been known to reach unemployment rates as high as 30%, while events such as military mobilization (a good example is that of World War II) have resulted in just 1-2% unemployment, a level that is often termed " full employment ". Typical unemployment rates in Western economies range between 5% and 10%. Some economists consider that a certain level of unemployment is necessary for the proper functioning of capitalist economies. Equally, some politicians have claimed that the "natural rate of unemployment" highlights the inefficiency of a capitalist economy, since not all its resources – in this case human labor – are being allocated efficiently.

Some libertarian economists argue that higher unemployment rates are in part the result of minimum wage laws, as well as in part the result of misguided monetary policy, and are not inevitable in a capitalist economy. They also claim that if the value of the productive capacity of a given employee is worth less to the employer than the minimum wage, that person will become unemployed, and therefore unemployment will exist whenever the legal minimum wage exceeds the true economic value of the least productive members of the labor pool. Likewise, if the amount of money a person can obtain on welfare approaches or equals what they could make by working, that person's incentive to work will be reduced.

Some unemployment is voluntary, such as when a potential job is turned down because the unemployed person is seeking a better job, is voluntarily living on savings, or has a non-wage-earning role, such as in the case of a traditional homemaker. Some measures of employment disregard these categories of unemployment, counting only people who are actively seeking work and have been unable to find any.


ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

 

1. What is the natural rate of unemployment?

2. What sort of events can lead to full employment?

3. How can minimum wage laws affect unemployment rates?

4. When will person's incentive to work be reduced?

since[sIns] 1) с тех пор, с тех пор как; 2) так как
to earn[tu Wn] 1) зарабатывать; 2) заслуживать
requirement[rI'kwaIqmqnt] 1) требование; 2) нужда, потребность; 3) расходы
work force[wWk fLs] рабочая сила, работники, рабочие
employer[Im'plOIq] предприниматель, наниматель, работодатель
access['xkses] доступ
rate[reIt] 1) размер, норма, ставка, тариф, такса, курс, цена; 2) скорость, темп; 3) пропорция, степень, процент, коэффициент, показатель
to fluctuate[tu 'flAktjueIt] 1) колебать(ся), быть неустойчивым; 2) меняться (о ценах, спросе)
natural rate of unemployment ['nxtSr(q)l reIt qv 'AnIm'plOImqnt] естественный уровень безработицы (уровень безработицы, который соответствует полной занятости в экономике, когда безработными являются только те люди, чья профессия в принципе не позволяет найти работу в данный момент (структурная безработица), а также те, кто находится в состоянии перехода с одного места работы на другое (фрикционная безработица))
depressed[dI'prest] 1) угнетенный, подавленный, ослабленный; 2) сниженный
stagnant['stxgnqnt] 1) застойный; 2) вялый, бездеятельный
full employment [ful Im'plOImqnt] полная занятость (занятость всех трудовых и капитальных ресурсов, которые могут быть задействованы в функционировании экономической системы; в современной теории предполагается, что состоянию полной занятости соответствует естественный уровень безработицы)
to range[tu reIndZ] классифицировать, распределять по классам/категориям, варьировать, колебаться в пределах
proper['prOpq] 1) присущий, свойственный, собственный; 2) правильный, должный, надлежащий
to highlight[tu 'haIlaIt] выдвигать на первый план
libertarian["lIbq'tFqrIqn] 1) сторонник доктрины о свободе воли; 2) сторонник свободы мысли и деятельности; борец за свободу
in part[In pRt] частью, частично, отчасти, немного
to misguide[tu 'mIs'gaId] 1) неправильно направлять; 2) вводить в заблуждение
monetary policy ['mAnIt(q)rI 'pOlIsI] денежно-кредитная [денежная, монетарная] политика (проводится монетарными властями и связана с управлением динамикой денежной массы и процентными ставками)
inevitable[In'evItqbl] неизбежный, неминуемый
to exceed[tu Ik'sJd] превышать, превосходить
pool[pHl] 1) объединение; 2) общий фонд; 3) пул (соглашение картельного типа между конкурентами)
likewise['laIkwaIz] 1) подобно, подобным образом; 2) также
welfare['welfFq] 1) благосостояние, благополучие, достаток; 2) работа по улучшению быта, благотворительность
to turn down [tu tWn daun] отклонять, отвергать (напр. предложение)
savings['seIvINz] сбережения
homemaker ['hOum"meIkq] хозяйка дома, мать семейства
to disregard[tu 'dIsrI'gRd] 1) не обращать внимание; 2) не принимать во внимание, игнорировать, пренебрегать

 

Grammar:

The functions of the infinitive in the sentence

The infinitive can be used in different syntactic functions. A single infinitive occurs but seldom: in most cases we find an infinitive phrase, i.e. an infinitive with one or several accompanying words.

1. The infinitive as a subject.

To doubt, under the circumstances, is almost to insult. (Ch..Bronte)

Сомневаться при таких обстоятельствах — это почти означает нанести

оскорбление.

То acquire knowledge and to acquire it unceasingly, is the first duty of the artist. (Thurston)

Приобретать знания, и приобретать их непрерывно — вот первый долг

художника.

Even to think of it gave him ineffable torture. (Bennett)

Одна мысль об этом причиняла ему невыразимые страдания.

То be recognized, greeted by some local personage afforded her a joy which was very great. (Cronin)

Когда ее узнавал и приветствовал какой-нибудь видный местный

житель, она испытывала большую радость.

 

From these examples we can see that the infinitive as a subject can be rendered in Russian by an infinitive, by a noun, or by a clause.

Though the infinitive as the subject sometimes precedes the predicate, cases when it follows the predicate are far more common; with the infinitive in the latter position, the sentence opens with the introductory it, which serves as an introductory subject. The introductory it is not translated into Russian.

It is useless to discuss the question. (Eliot)

Бесполезно обсуждать этот вопрос.

It was pleasant to be driving a car again. (Braine)

Было приятно снова вести машину.

 

2. The infinitive as a preidicative.

My intention is to get into parliament. (Trollope)

Моя цель — пройти в парламент.

 

The infinitive can also be used as part of a predicative.

 

The abode of Mrs. Betty was not easy to find. (Dickens)

Жилище миссис Бетти было нелегко найти.

 

3. The infinitive as part of a compound verbal predicate.

(a) With modal verbs, modal expressions, and verbs expressing modality the infinitive forms part of a compound verbal modal predicate.

 

We must not leave him by himself any longer. (Dickens)

The train was to leave at midnight. (Hemingway)

...I intend to lead a better life in the future. (Wilde)

 

(b) With verbs denoting the beginning, duration, or end of an action the infinitive forms part of a compound verbal aspect predicate.

 

Imprisonment began to tell upon him. (Dickens)

Before daylight it started to drizzle. (Hemingway)

Clare continued to observe her. (Hardy)

... they gradually ceased to talk. (Twain)

Exercise 1. State the function of the infinitive and Infinitive Constructions. Translate into Russian.

1. It was then an easy matter for me to go to Paul's room and make an appropriate signal to Kitty, and she turned back, up the street to disappear round the corner into Church Square. (Clark) 2. She made a curious, fumbling gesture towards me, as if to convey a sort of affection. (Hansford Johnson) 3. It was charming to see him play with the two children. (Maugham) 4. To tell you the truth, Mr. Butler, I did not want Aileen to leave your home at all. (Dreiser) 5. I happen to know that he was supposed to come to the wedding. (Salinger) 6. Gertrude gave a long soft exhalation. It made the young man smile at her again; and this smile made her blush a little. To take refuge from blushing she asked him if, after his long walk, he was not hungry and thirsty. (James) 7. Charles Lomax's exertions are much more likely to decrease his income than to increase it. (Shaw) 8. Your shortest way will be to follow the boulevard, and cross the park... but it is too late and too dark for a woman to go through the park alone. (Ch. Brontë) 9. In spite of herself the colour fled from her cheeks instantly, only to come back in a hot, defiant wave. (Dreiser) 10. They hardly expect him to recover consciousness; it was a terrible knock.

Exercise 2. Point out the Objective-with-the-Iniinitive and the Subjective Infinitive Constructions. Translate into Russian.

1. Never once had she been seen to cry. (Mansfield) 2. It was the first time he had ever seen her weep. (Buck) 3. He didn't mean this to be a long meeting. (Snow) 4. There was a rumour that at last they were likely to be married, (Snow) 5.... without remonstrance she suffered me to have my own way. (Ch. Brontë) 6. Irving proved to be a long, sallow-faced butler chap, solemn as an undertaker. (Priestley) 7. Mr. Worthing is sure to be back soon. (Wilde) 8. I came to get someone to tell me the truth. (Hansford Johnson) 9. I'll have Bertha bring you breakfast. (Stone) 10. Unfortunately, at this moment he chances to catch sight of Judith's face. (Shaw) 11. I have never known Hector Rose behave like this. (Snow) 12. His "office" turned out to be in one of the back streets close by Olympia. (Snow) 13, Conrad pulled out a chair and made her sit down. (Greene) 14. He... looked at his watch, rang the bell, and ordered the vehicle to be brought round immediately. (Eliot) 15. Paul felt his heart lift as at a great victory. (Cronin) 16.... people took an oath, a pledge, when they were married, and that was supposed to hold them together. (Lindsay) 17. You make me think of spring flowers... (Braine) 18. At thirteen he began to read books that were said to be evil. (Saroyan)

19.Young men of this class never do anything for themselves that they can get other people to do for them. (James) 20. He said he wouldn't suffer a word to be uttered to him in his uncle's disparagement. (E. Brontë) 21. She doesn't seem to want to do anything I suggest. (Dreiser) 22. Cecily and Gwendolen are perfectly certain to be extremely great friends. (Wilde) 23. He heard the town clock strike twelve. (Faulkner) 24. Nearly a year ago, I chanced to tell him our legend of the nun... (Ch. Brontë) 25. Harriet, pale and trembling... suffered her to go on uninterrupted. (Dickens) 26. "You will not allow this base newspaper slander to shorten your stay here, Mr. Winkle?" said Mrs. Pott, smiling through the traces of her tears. (Dickens) 27. He turned out to have no feeling whatsoever for his nephew. (Snow) 28. I don't like him to be so long alone. (Hansford Johnson)

Listening and discussion:

 

Texts “Ancient era”, “Renaissance era”, “Modern era”

Ancient era

The Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Acropolis and the Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia and the Colosseum, Teotihuacán and the cities and pyramids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great Wall of China, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and military engineers. The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep. As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC. He may also have been responsible for the first known use of columns in architecture. Ancient Greece developed machines in both the civilian and military domains.

The Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering. Chinese, Greek and Roman armies employed complex military machines and inventions such as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century B.C. the trireme, the ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages, the Trebuchet was developed.

Renaissance era

The first electrical engineer is considered to be William Gilbert, with his 1600 publication of De Magnete, who was the originator of the term "electricity". The first steam engine was built in 1698 by mechanical engineer Thomas Savery. The development of this device gave rise to the industrial revolution in the coming decades, allowing for the beginnings of mass production. With the rise of engineering as a profession in the eighteenth century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering.

Modern era

The International Space Station represents a modern engineering challenge from many disciplines. Electrical engineering can trace its origins in the experiments of Alessandro Volta in the 1800s, the experiments of Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric motor in 1872. The work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of Electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other Engineering specialty.

The inventions of Thomas Savery and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to modern Mechanical Engineering. The development of specialized machines and their maintenance tools during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of Mechanical Engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. Chemical Engineering, like its counterpart Mechanical Engineering, developed in the nineteenth century during the Industrial Revolution. Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants. The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.

Aeronautical Engineering deals with aircraft design while Aerospace Engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach envelope of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the turn of the century from the 19th century to the 20th although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.



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