There is a contradiction between the representation of gender in the books of grammatical theory and practical text-books.
Theoretical books define the gender as a lexical category and consider the gender as the matter of lexicology. Practical courses of grammar include the gender as the category of the English grammatical structure. Some linguists, as Pr. Smirnitsky, reject such category because of the outer word reference.
In fact the gender of the noun exists in English not as variable form, but as noun classification..But the question of noun classification due to their gender has grammatical relevance.
Pr. Вlokh defines the category of gender as the category which is expressed by the correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person singular. If the noun is referred to "he", it is a masculine gender. If it is referred to "she", it is a feminine gender. If it is referred to "it", it is a neuter gender.
The category of gender is based on the opposition of personal nouns and non-personal nouns. Personal nouns are considered to be masculine or feminine gender. Non-personal nouns can be considered to be of neuter gender. As a result we get a traditional classification of nouns into feminine, masculine and neuter.
Bear in mind that English non-personal nouns comprise animate and non-animate nouns (road — ant). A great number of English personal nouns can express both feminine and masculine genders. We can call them the nouns of "the common gender" (cousin, doctor, friend, president). If there is no need to indicate sex distinction they are regarded as masculine. Sometimes English nouns can show the sex distinction lexically with the help of combining with the notional noun as sex indicator or with the help of suffixes (boy-friend, landlady, he-bear; actor, actress, lion, lioness).
Sometimes the phenomenon of gender can be expressed by non-personal animate nouns (especially in fairy-tales). Some non-personal inanimate nouns are associated with the so-called personification, which is used traditionally. "She" is associated with names of countries, vehicles, weaker animals. "He" is referred to the names of stronger animals.
THE ENGLISH VERB
The verb is a notional part of speech which has the general meaning of progress, state, action, process, which has categories of number, person, tense, voice, aspect, correlation, mood; which is connected with the noun, adjective (He felt fine), adverbs, pronouns and other parts of speech in the sentence. The verb mainly performs the function of predicate in the sentence. Structurally the verb can be simple, derived — with suffixes or prefixes (to mispronounce, to memorize); compound — two roots stem (blackmail, whitewash); composite or phrasal verbs — a verb and a postposition of an adverbial origin (to be off, to get on) and a combination of the head verb (have, give, take) and a noun (to have a smoke, to give a smile).
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The class of verbs falls into a lumber of subclasses distinguished by different semantic and -syntactical features. According to the lexico-syntactical classification verbs are divided into notional and semi-notional and functional verbs.
Notional verbs have a full lexical meaning of their own and perform an independent syntactic, function in the sentence (predicate). They can be used without any additional words as simple predicate and sometimes make up a sentence of their own (Stand up!).
Semi-notional verbs or functional verbs have a peculiar lexical meaning. They serve to show the connection between the subject of the sentence and reality. They mark the predication in the sentence. They are modal verbs and their equivalents; verbs denoting beginning, continuation, end of the action; link-verbs and auxiliary verbs,
Modal verbs have specific lexical meaning of ability, obligation, permission. They perform the function of a part of a compound verbal modal predicate, so they are followed by the infinitive and they are defective in form (have no number, person, voice, aspect distinctions).
Semi-notional verbs also include equivalents of modal verbs (to be able to, to have to, to be capable etc.) and verbs with a modal components in their meaning (seem, happen, appear, turn out). They serve to form a part of a compound verbal modal predicate as they are not fully independent and need the additional element (the infinitive).
The verbs of beginning, continuing, end of the action are also dependent and form a part of a compound verbal aspect predicate with an infinitive. But in some cases such verbs as to begin, to continue, to stop can be notional transitive ones (They stopped the traffic).
Link-verbs introduce the notional part of the predicate (the predicative) which is commonly expressed by a noun, an adjective or a phrase of a similar character. They have a peculiar meaning of their own (such as being, becoming, remaining), the connection of the predicative of the sentence. And like all semi-notional verbs their meaning is incomplete, which means they can't be used without the following notional element. There is a number of notional verbs which can perform the function of link-verbs without losing their lexical meaning (lie, set, run, rise...). They usually denote motion or position (The moon rose red).
Auxiliary verbs as functional elements have their lexical, meaning of their own, they have no independent syntactic function in the sentence, they serve to form analytical forms, In fact they are not words but morphemes (discontinuous be + Vnotional + ending).
Speaking on the properties of notional verbs it's necessary to mention that they undergo the three main grammatical subdivisions. The first is based on the relation of the subject to the process denoted by the verb and due to il all notional verbs can be divided into actional and statal. Actional verbs express the action performed by the subject, they represent the subject as an active doer (make, learn, read...). Statal verbs denote the state of the subject, they express some mode of its existence (to be, live, suffer, see...). There are some verbs which neither express action nor states, but process (to neglect, guess, consider..,).
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The second division of notional verbs is based on the aspective characteristics of the process denoted by the verb. The verb can represent the process as durative, repeated, interminate (не кончающийся), starting... So two aspective subclasses can be recognized:
1) terminative (limitive) verbs which have the same limit in their process (to arrive, to start, to open, to break);
2) non- terminative (durative) verbs are without any limit in their meaning (to live, to be, to have, to hope).
But there are some verbs which can be limitive in same contexts and unlirnitive in others. There are the so-called mixed or double verbs (to see, to read, to write).
The third division is based on the combining power of verbs in relation to other notional words in the sentence, which is called their syntactic valency. This property of verbs is very important because being the centre of predication, the finite verb organizes all other sentence elements. The organizing power of the verb is inseparable from its lexical meaning. The syntactic valency can be obligatory and optional. The obligatory valency is realized for the grammatical completion of the syntactic constructions. For instance, the subject and the predicate are the obligatory parts of the sentence and from the point of view' of valency are characterized by obligatory valency. Or the subject and the direct object are the obligatory valency partners for the finite verb. The optional valency is not necessarily realized in grammatically complete constructions. Most of the adverbial modifiers are optional parts of the sentence, so we can say that the adverbial valency of the verb is mostly optional (I saw the girl. — I saw the girl immediately in the crowd).
Verbal transitivity is the ability of the verb to take a direct object, art object which is immediately affected by the denoted process. This object is joined to the verb directly without a preposition. Verbal objectivity is the ability of the verb to take any object: direct, indirect or prepositional. Transitive verbs (to miss, to interrupt) are opposed to intransitive (to deal); objective verbs are opposed to non-objective (to give, to mention — to rise, lie).
The general division of verbs into transitive and intransitive is morphologically more relevant for Russian than for English morphology, since in English all the three fundamental types of the object can be made into the subjects of the corresponding passive constructions. The term "transitive" is freely used in English grammatical textbook in relation to all the objective verbs, not only to those of them that take a direct object.
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The category of tense
The category of tense is one of the basic categories of the verb! We should distinguish between the general notion of time and the grammatical one. Time as well as space are the basic forms of the existence of matter and they are absolutely independent of human perception. But time is reflected by man through his perception and intellect and this phenomenon finds its expression in the language.
Words and phrases like "now, tomorrow, at present" point out certain moment directly? They express time lexically. The grammatical expression of time is indirect. Tense as a grammatical notion shows if the action coincides with the moment of speaking, preceeds or follows it. The category of tense is represented by the opposition of 3 members: past, present, future.
The present tense is unmasked member of the opposition with a very wide range of its meaning. The moment of present tense is not limited. It's clear when we use such indications of time as "this year, today". The present tense may denote an action beyond any definite limit (utterances of general truths — Two and two makes for). The present tense can be sometimes used to express the past action for a more vivid narration (historical present). The present tense is used to express a future action the realization of which arranged planned, certain. (I'm meeting with him.)
The forms of the past tense are marked members of the opposition and express the process which took place before the moment of speaking. The past tense shows that the action is excluded from the present environment. It can be used to express a future or present action only in depended structures viewed from the past.
The future tense expresses an action that is expected after a moment of speech. Future moment can be indicated by such words as "tomorrow, next year, soon..." or by another action. But the combination of the verbs "shall/will" with the infinitive is a subject of discussion: if they are the categorial expressions of verbal tense or combination of modal verbs with an infinitive. The point of view that "shall/will" retain their modal meaning in all their uses was defended by a known English linguist O.Jespersen. Pr. Barkhudarov objected to taking the grammatical forms in question only as modal forms and included them into the tense system of the verb, because they can express both the future and the Past time in the form "Future-in-the-Past", which can hardly make any sense as grammatical opposition in modality.
In analyzing of the English future tense, the modal factor should be taken into consideration, especially in the verbal form of the first person, ("I will" — intention or desire.)
The category of aspect
The category of aspect shows the manner or mode of the realization of the process as abstracted from the time of realization. The aspective meaning is found in the semantic structure of the verb. In English the various lexical aspective meaning of the verb can be subdivided into limitative and unlimitative sets. This division is very loose, free, but the aspective character of the verb is not indifferent to the choice of the aspective grammatical forms of the verb.
In Russian the aspective division of verbs into perfective and imperfective is very strict, because it governs the tense system of the verb both grammatically and semantically.
In English the aspective form of the verb can be non-continuous and continuous. The opposition reflects the way of the action performed by the verb.
The non-continuous form treats the action in a general way. The continuous form treats the action in development. So Pr. Blokh suggested calling it the category of development (traditionally the category of aspect);
The marked member of this opposition is the continuous form (to be +Ving). It has the meaning of process of development. The non-continuous form is the unmarked member of the opposition. It has no special meaning, the general non-continuous meaning or sometimes it can be neutralized.
Different opinions were expressed concerning the continuous form on different stages of the development of linguistic studies. The traditional analysis (H.Sweet and O.Jespersen) placed them among the tense form of the verb, defining them as expressing an action going on simultaneously with some other action. But the continuous form is usually used with a verb which expresses a simultaneous action and the time of the action can't be expressed only by the continuous form, the time of the action is generally expressed by the broader semantic context, in which the form is used.
The correlation of the continuous and the contextual indication of time is illustrated by complex-sentence with the clauses of time introduced by the conjunction "while".
- While I was packing our things, the children were playing in the garden.
- While I packed, the children were playing.
- While I was packing, the children played.
- While I packed, the children played.
The difference of the four combinations is not in the time of the action but in the character of the action.
One more example of the non-temporal meaning of the continuous form is its regular use in combination with the perfect form (its use in the verb form perfect-continuous). In this combination the perfect can't be connected with the idea of the simultaneous action, so the continuous form combined with the perfect one in one and the same verb form can only be understood as expressing an aspective character of the verb or the action in progress.
Pr. Ivanova suggested treating the continuous as a blend of aspective and temporal meaning manifested in the same form, connected with the factor of time, the indefinite or the perfect. This interpretation is considered to be very essential, as it demonstrates the actual connection of tense and aspect in the system of English verbs.
The category of aspect doesn't penetrate all the verbs and has various limitations. It is neutralized if the non-continuous forms are used in cases of usual continuous form (with unlimitative, durative, non-terminative). Unlimitative stative verbs don't admit the use of the continuous forms. The aspect of development is also neutralized in the Passive Voice. The Future Continuous, the Future Perfect and the Future Perfect Continuous don't exist. The Future-non-Continuous forms are used instead. On the other hand, the continuous can be used to denote habitual recurrent action emphatically (She is always grumbling [ворчит, бурчит]). Emphatically unlimitative verbs including stative verbs are used in the continuous aspect to express temporary state of a person (You are not knowing all about me).
As the aspective category has a verbal representation, it is represented not only in finite forms, but also in verbals, mostly in the infinitive (to be writing, to have been writing). The gerund and the participle do not distinguish the category of aspect as such, but there are some traces of progressive meaning in these forms, especially in the present participle, which itself is one of the markers of the category (I saw them leaving the house).
Concerning the category of aspect it should be taken into consideration that the place of the perfect form of the verb raises a lot of argument. Some scholars as H,Sweet regarded it as a form of timing (tense), Pr. Ilyish pointed out the aspective origin of the perfect form, and Pr. Vorontsova and Pr. Blokh regard it as some special "retrospective" category or coordination (which is some kind of coordination between the past and the present). Pr. Smirnitskiy denied the possibility of coexistence of two aspects (perfect and continuous), for example, in the perfect continuous form there is no possibility to observe them as two aspects at the same time. So Pr. Smirnitskiy came to the conclusion that the perfect couldn't be the aspective form and suggested treating them as a special verbal category of time correlation
The category of time correlation (or by Pr.Blokh definition "the category of retrospective coordination" denotes priority manifested by the perfect forms on the present, past, future and contrasted against non-expressing priority by the non-perfect forms. The category of correlation shows ifthe action is prior to some moment or another action or it is taken irrespectively of that. It has the opposition of the non-perfect (do, did) and the perfect (has done, had done) which is the marked member of the opposition and is characterized by "to have + Ved".
Correlation is a separate verbal category semantically intermediate between the categories of tense and aspect, but quite self-independent in the system of the English verb. This interpretation of the perfect gives a natural explanation of the questionable verbal form of the perfect continuous, showing that each categorial element expresses its own category of the same form: the perfect interprets the action in the light of priority while the continuous present the same action as progressive.
The category of voice
The category shows the direction of the action as regarded by the participants of the situation. It shows the relation between the action, the doer of the process and the object of the action.
The voice of the English verb is expressed by the opposition of the passive form and the action form of the verb. The passive form is the marked, strong member of the opposition (to be + Ved), which expresses reception of the action by the subject of the syntactic constructions. The passive subject is denoting the object of the action. The active form is the weak member, it leaves this meaning unspecified, the subject itself performs the action.
In English the category of voice has a broader representation in the system of the English verb than in Russian since in English not only transitive, but also intransitive objective verbs, and prepositional ones can be used in the passive voice. And verbs taking two objects can make each of them the subject of the corresponding passive- construction. Still, not all the verbs capable of taking an object are used in the passive voice. They are some statal verbs: to have, to own, to become, to belong...).
These verbs are mostly used in the active voice because they are characterized by the active semantic meaning.
There is one more problem in connection with-the category of voice. If all the forms consisting of "to be + Ved" should be considered as the forms of the passive voice. If the construction which expresses an action "to be + Participle II" is considered to be the form of the passive voice. But in some cases this form "to be + Participle II" loses its passive meaning, becomes neutralized. In such cases the structure expresses a state and is treated as a compound nominal predicate with the link verb "to be"..
In a context there should always be some factors which stress the actional or statal meaning. When the doer of the action is indicated or there is an adverbial modifier, or the verb is used in the Continuous or Perfect, we mostly have the Passive Voice (the simple predicate. — "The gate has just been locked" or "The gate was locked by the butler".). But in the sentence "The gate was locked / The gate is locked" we have state, that's why the predicate is considered to be compound nominal with the link-verb "to be" and the predicative "Participle II".
The category of mood
Shows if the action is treated as real, problematic or unreal from the point of view of a speaker. It is expressed by the opposition of free sets of forms.
The category of mood is the most controversial category of the verb. In fact the number of moods in the opinion of different linguists varies from 2 to 14.
One of the main difficulties of the category of mood is that different forms may have the identical meaning and may coincide in their use. The other difficulty is that one and the same form has different meanings and may express action real (I knew him well), problematic or unreal (If I knew him well, I would tell him).
A lot of scholars devoted their works to the problem of mood of the English verb. They are Pr. Ilyish, Barkhudarov, Vorontsova. But Pr. Smirnitskiy is one of the prominent linguists, whose theories revolutionized the presentation of English verbal grammar. According to Pr. Smirnitskiy there are 6 moods in English:
1) the indicative mood expresses facts;
2) the imperative mood expresses commands, requests as the will of the speaker;
3) subjunctive I represents an ' action as problematic one, but not
contradicting to reality (Form: the infinitive without particle "to"— Success attend you!);"
4) subjunctive II represents an action contradicting to reality (Forms: did — had done — I wish I knew you better);
5) the suppositional mood represents an action as problematic one (Forms: should do — should have done — She suggested they should go there together;
6) the conditional mood expresses unreal action, unreality of which is due to the absence of necessary conditions (Forms: should (would) do - should /would have done.— If he were here he would be very glad).
STATIVES
The essence of the words asleep (спящий, во сне, умерший), afloat (по течению воды, плавающий, на море), astir (в движении, в волнении), ablaze (в огне, пылающий) and their position in the system of parts of speech is still under discussion. There is a view that they constitute a special part of speech which is called stative and is characterized by the prefix -a.