SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF MODAL VERBS
The modal verbs can be semantically characterized by taking into account two important factors: a) their lexical meaning and b) their capacity to indicate 'a source' of modality.
A. According to their lexical meaning the modals may be divided into two major classes: those expressing possibility and those expressing necessity, The former are can, could, may, might, will, would. Some other expulsions are often used to say that there is nothing to prevent the described situation from taking place, or that the subject of the sentence has the ability or is allowed to perform the action denoted by the infinitive: be able to, be Capable of, be allowed to, be permitted to, etc.
The modals expressing necessity are must, ought, shall, should, need. In addition to the modal verbs there are some other expressions denoting necessity in English: have to, have got to, be to, be bound to, be obliged to, of which the first three should be accorded special attention.
B. According to their relation to the subject of the sentence the modal verbs can be divided into subject-oriented and speaker-oriented modals. Subject-oriented or internal modals are can, could, need, will, would (and the modal expression have / have got + to-infinitive). These verbs indicate that it is the subject of the sentence that is the source of the possibility (capacity, ability, intention) or the necessity (obligation, requirement) to perform the action denoted by the infinitive. In declarative sentences with subject-oriented modals the meaning of the negative particle not goes with the modal, not wih the main verb (infinitive): He can't (doesn 't have to) do that means that it is not possible (necessary) for him to do that, and not that it is possible (necessary) for him not to do that.
[p5:] Speaker-oriented or external modals are may, might, must, shall, should, ought (and the structure be + to-infinitive). These verbs show that it is the speaker who is the source of possibility (permission) or necessity (order, command, strong advice). In other words, the modality is, in a sense, "imposed" on the subject of a sentence from the outside. The meaning of the negative particle not is usually combined with the meaning of the infinitive, not with the modal verb: He must not do that means that it is necessary for him not to do it rather than it is not necessary for him to do it.
FORMAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODAL VERBS
The modals have different forms. All the modal verbs have stressed pronunciations. When they are stressed the modals are said to be used in their basic (strong) forms: can [kxn], could [kud], may [meI], might [maIt], must [mAst], will [wIl], would [wud], shall [Sxl], should [Sud], ought [Lt].
Some of the modals also have unstressed pronunciations [weak forms]: can [kqn] or [kn], could [kqd], may occasionally [mq] or [mI], must [mqst], [mqs], [mst] or occasionally [ms], will [wql], [ql], or normally [l], would [wqd], [qd], or [d], shall [Sql],[Sl], [Sq], [S],1 should [fqd], [Sd], and before voiced consonants [St].
Besides their basic non-negative forms, the modals are often used in their contracted negative forms: can't [ka:nt] hi BrE or [kxnt] in AmE, couldn't [kudnt], mayn't [meInt], mightn't [maItntl, mustn't [mAstnt], wouldn 't [wudnt], shouldn 't [Sudnt] or [Sqdnt], oughtn 't [Ltnt] or sometimes [Ltn] when not final; the contracted negative forms of the verbs will and shall are won't [wqVnt] and shan 't [SRnt].2
SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MODAL VERBS
The modals have several important syntactic features in common with the primary auxiliary verbs be, do and have:
a) with the exception of ought, all the modals are followed by the bare infinitive (without to)of the notional verb:
You must be patient (You ought to be patient), 
Max should have answered this question;
1The forms [Sq] and [S] are chiefly used before the words we and be.
2 The form mayn’'t is not used in AmE and is rare in BrE; shan't is rare in AmE, though it is quite common in BrE.
[p.6:] b) in negative sentences the particle not is placed immediately after them:
She cannot meet him tomorrow (cf.: She didn’t meet him yesterday).
c) in interrogative sentences they precede the subject of the sentence:
Can you give it to him? What can we do about it?
d) in tag-questions they arc placed in the tag:
They cannot sing, can they?
e) the modals can stand alone in a sentence only when they are used as proforms for the whole verb-phrase:
Can you see that? —No, nobody can.
The modals have some characteristics distinguishing them fromboth primary auxiliaries and notional verbs in English:
a) they cannot take the endings -s, -ing, or -ed; they do not have infinitives or participles or passives;
b) they do not have tensed forms; although the verbs could, might, would and should are sometimes, on historical basis, said to be special past forms of the verbs can, may, will and shall, there are a number of reasons to believe that they are at present distinct verbs with their own meanings and uses;
c) the modals cannot form imperative sentences;
d) they do not take do when emphasized; in emphatic sentences the modal verb is stressed;
e) as a rule, in Standard English, two modals cannot be used within one simple sentence:
They began to think to start working vs. *They will may can do it.
All the modals can be used in two ways. One use of the modals is to indicate that the subject of a sentence is probably / certainly doing, has done / did, or will be doing something. The speaker is saying that a certain situation probably or certainly "exists" at some time in reality. The use of modals indicates only how certain the speaker is about what he or she is saying. The meaning of the sentence can be rendered into Russian with thehelp of the words like вepoятнo, нaeepнoe, может 6ыmь, должно быть,возможно, no-видимому, etc. Since the sentence as a whole expresses or describes what is, was or will probably (or certainly) be the case, this use of the modals can be called descriptive. It is associated with the notions of logical conclusion, belief, opinion, certainty and probability: He must be tired. — Oн, должно быть, устал. She must have seen him yesterday. — Oна, должно быть, видела его вчера
[p.7:] It may be dangerous. — Mожет быть, эmo опасно.
I might see you again. — Я может быть, вас еще увижу.
That can't be Jack — he's in London. — Bpяд ли это Джек, он в Лондоне.
The modal verbs are also used to indicate that the subject of the sentence (the "doer") intends to do something or that he is capable of doing something, or has no choice but to do something. The speaker indicates that it is possible or necessary for the subject to do something, or that the subject of the sentence is (not) free in his choice of action. The sentence expresses what someone is able or obliged to do and may include the meanings of obligation, order, recommendation, request, advice, promise, willingness, permission, ability, etc. Since what is ordered, recommended or promised is expected to take place (or to be "created") through some action performed by the subject of the sentence, this use of the modals can be called creative:
He can speak five languages. — Oн гoвopum (yмeem гoвopumь) на nяmu языках..
I couldn't pass the examination. — Я не смог сдать экзамен.
We must get up early tomorrow. — Mы должны завтра вcmamь paнo.
You may take it. — Bы можете это взять.
I think you should go. — Я dyмаю, me6e надo uдти.
I will have my own way. — Я все paвнo cднлаю no-cвoeмy.
In the following paragraphs each modal verb will be discussed separately and in more details. We will start with the discussion of the modals expressing possibility and then proceed to the modal verbs of necessity. Within each section the creative and descriptive uses of the modal verbs will be presented separately. Some expressions which have modal meanings when combined with to-infinitive will be also accounted for.
POSSIBILITY
If something is possible, there is usually nothing one can think of which may prevent it from, happening. If the verbs can or could are used to say that it is possible to do something, then it is the subject of the sentence (or rather the doer of the action) that is thought to possess all the qualities necessary to do it. If we use may or might we want to emphasize that there is nothing in the current situation to stop the action from being implemented. The verbs will and would are chiefly related to the idea of intention or willingness of the subject of the sentence to do something.
[p.8:] 4.1. CAN AND COULD
These verbs express possibility; they are subject-oriented verbs and can be used both creatively and in some cases descriptively.The general meaning of these verbs — possibility — includes the notions of ability and permission. Could may sometimes act as a past form of theverb can but it is also used in sentences referring to events which are expected to happen either in the present or in the future.
Creative Contexts
In their creative use can and could indicate that some qualities of the subject of the sentence enable him to perform the action denoted by the infinitive, or that the person or the object mentioned in the sentence is capable of being acted upon. Could differs from can in that it may, in an appropriate context, express either a more tentative (present or future) possibility related to a conditional idea (often rendered in Russian as мог бы)or something which was possible in the past. It must be emphasized that if something can (could) happen there is only a possibility that it will happen, but it won't (or didn't) necessarily happen in reality.
1. These verbs are commonly used to indicate that it is possible for the subject of a sentence to perform an action, that is to show that the person or object denoted by the subject noun phrase is not prevented from displaying his / her or its qualities by doing something in the current circumstances:
They can achieve agreement tomorrow.
If they tried harder tomorrow they could achieve agreement at last.
Now we can/could manage our own time properly.
In the past we could manage our own time properly.
Reactions to stress can manifest themselves in many ways.
With the negative particle not these modals express impossibility:
I cannot / couldn 't trust you now.
Gold can’t be dissolved in water.
The expressions can't / couldn't help + gerund and can't / couldn 't but + infinitive are used to indicate that something makes one do something, even if one is unwilling to do it:
He can’t help feeling that he is being watched.
2. This meaning is often pragmatically associated with the ideas of an offer, suggestion, or request:
How can/could I help you?
I can / could do that for you.
We can/ could try asking Jack for help.
[p.9:] We can try asking Jack for help or we can forget all about it.
You could at least tell me what you are going to do.
Can / could we talk about something else?
Can / could you help me with this letter?
Couldn 't you come tomorrow, please?
The use of negative interrogative forms often shows that the speaker is irritably urging someone to do something:
Can't / couldn't you just keep quiet about it?
Can 't you let him alone?
Can 't you men do something?
Sometimes sentences with can may be interpreted as commands or predictions:
You can take these invoices up to the boss now.
Peter can expect to receive an important promotion tomorrow.
3. These modal verbs refer to some characteristic behaviour or quality of the subject:
Dogs can be dangerous.
She can be very unpleasant at times.
She could be very unpleasant when she was young.
4. Can and could are used with, verbs of perception (see, hear, taste, smell, etc.) to refer to situations in which one is or was receiving information through one's senses:
Can you see that man over there?
He could see nowhere to park, his car.
He could hear some strange sound coming from above.
5. Can and could are often used when the speaker wants to say that the (animate and agentive) subject of the sentence has the physical or mental ability to do something;
He can speak German.
I can/can't open the door.
He could swim very well when he was 20.
His throat hurt so much that he could not speak without pain.
It should be emphasized that these verbs express ability without implying that the action denoted by the infinitive is actually performed. If you say He can certainly do it it may mean at least two things: either you draw the conclusion that "he" can do it because he did it at least once in the past or you just strongly believe that he will do it if he wants to. It does not mean that the subject of the sentence will certainly do it in reality. [p.10:] Likewise, the sentence Jack could do it does not mean that Jack, did it successfullyor that he even tried to do it. What the sentence implies is either thatJack possesses the ability to do something in the near future or that he wascapable of doing something in the past, but in either case there is no referenceto an actual performance of the action.
It is important to note that an actual performance is not relevant if the subject of a sentence in fact does what he is able to do any time he wants to. The sentence Helen could play the piano when she was 15 expresses general ability: it means that when Helen was 15 she actually played the piano any time she wanted to.
6. The expression be able + to-infinitive is also used to describe general ability in the present (less common), or in the past:
He is able to speak French.
He was able to speak French fluently when he was 20.
To say that someone will have the ability to do something in the future only be able to {not can or could)is used. As a rule, future ability is seen as dependent on some other event:
When he finishes his courses, he will be able to speak French fluently.
One day people will be able to visit Mars.
Be able to may be also used to describe a particular ability, i. e. the ability to perform some specific action in particular circumstances:
He is /will be able to fix your car.
It is important to note that be able to, when used to indicate a particular ability in the past, implies that the subject of the sentence actually performs the action. Could is not used to express the ability to do something on one occasion in the past, nor is it used to imply that the ability was, in fact, realized. It means that you cannot use could instead of was able to in the sentence I was able to pass my exam yesterday (particular ability) but you are free to use either could or was able to in He could / was able to speak German when he was 9 (general ability). In negative sentences both couldn 't and wasn 't able to may be used for lack of general or particular ability:
Sorry, I couldn 't/ wasn 't able to come yesterday.
He could scare Johnny if he felt like it, but he couldn't scare me.
7. It is could with the perfect infinitive that indicates that something was possible in the past but didn't occur:
He could have visited her last week but he fell ill. Добавка: также, исходя из общего смысла предложения, можно догадаться и о возможном действии в прошлом, выраженным could + perfect infinitive: It is just possible that such a small creature could have preyed on dinosaur eggs. (Сollins Cobuild: 4.143 uncertainty)
You could have won that time (but you didn 't).
You could have bought this ring for her (but you didn't).
[p.11:] 8. Can and could may also indicate that the speaker is asking for permission (if he or she is using an interrogative sentence):
Can / could I take this book?
Can / could I speak to the manager, please?
Can / could Jack speak to you for a moment?
Can is used to give (or report) permission (if the speaker is using a declarative sentence):
You can smoke here..
Anyone can park here.
John can come whenever he likes.
She says we can eat the sandwiches.
It must be noted that only can (not could)is used to give or refuse permission:
Could I use your car? — Yes, of course, you can (*could).
I'm afraid, you can't stay here for a week.
Besides asking for permission could may be used to report:
a) permission in reported speech:
His mother said he could stay for another hour, Helen said that you could smoke here;
b) conditional permission which would (not) be given but was not in fact asked for:
He could stay if he asked.
He could have stayed if he had asked;
c) general permission (i. e. permission to do something at any time) in the past:
Last year John could come here whenever he liked,
She said that John could come here whenever he liked
(cf.: Last night he was allowed to (*could) watch TV for two hours).
Descriptive Contexts
When the verb could is used descriptively it serves as indication that even though the speaker is not quite certain that what he/she is saying is true, he/she assumes it to be very likely. In negative and interrogative sentences we use the modals can and could to say that we can hardly believe that something is the case.
Note that can is used descriptively only in negative or interrogative sentences:
He cannot know what the real situation is. — Едва ли он знает, какова ситуация на самом деле.
[p.12:] She can't have passed her exam. — Вряд ли она сдали экзамен.
Can he be still reading this book? — Неужели oн все еще читает этукнигу.
Can it be John? — Может быть, это Джон? (или Неужели это Джон?)
It can’t bе true. — Не может быть, что это правда.
Could may be used descriptively in all types of sentences:
You could be right. -— Может быть, ты (и) прав
It could rain tomorrow. — Завтра,, может быть, будет дождь.
Could she have sent the letter? — Неужели она отправила письмо?
Could it be you? — Неужели это ты?
It couldn’t possibly be his car. — Вряд ли это его машина.
It couldn't possibly have been his car, — Вряд ли это была его машина.
То express disbelief about a negative statement the verb fail от verbs with negative prefixes (misunderstand, mishear, misinform, etc.) can be used:
She can't / couldn't have failed to get in touch with them. — He может быть, чтобы ей не удалось с ними связаться.
Peter couldn't have misinterpreted my words. — He может быть, чтобы Питер неправильно понял мои слова.
The same meaning may be also expressed when negative statements are preceded by it cannot / couldn't be that...:
It can't / couldn't he that she didn't get in touch with them.
4.2. MAY AND MIGHT
These verbs, in contrast to can and could, are speaker-oriented modals, expressing external possibility. Using me modals may or might the speaker means that there is a chance that something will happen or is happening, that it is possible for something to be done or that it is possible that something will be done. It is the speaker who decides whether something is possible or not without referring to any qualities or characteristics of the subject of the sentence.
Both may and might can be used in creative or descriptive contexts. Cf.: Well, we may /might have some lunch (= it is possible for us to have lunch); We may / might be wrong (= it is possible that we are wrong).
Might suggests a tentative, conditional possibility or a lower probability and is used more often than may.
[p.13:] Creative Contexts
In creative contexts may and might are used to say that there is a chance for somebody to do something or for something to be done.
1. In contrast to can and could the verbs may and might indicate that there is nothing in the current circumstances to stop anybody from doing something. The sentence These books may be taken from the library means that the speaker believes there is nothing to prevent anybody from taking the books from the library. The sentence These books can be taken from the library implies that the books are available in the library:
You can 'i escape the possibility that interest rates may go even higher.
The market may go lower but the time to buy is now.
Good water may be obtained from a well near the landing place.
2. This general meaning enables one to use may to give or ask permission:
She may work in my room. She won't disturb me.
May 1 help myself to the wine?
May I have some coffee?
I'll take it, may I?
I'll close the door, if I may?
Might can be used only to ask (not to give) permission:
Might I speak to your boss?
I wonder if I might ask you for a favour?
Such sentences are rather formal and are not very common (especially those with might).
Negative creative sentences with may not sometimes express prohibition; they are used to refuse permission or to forbid someone to do something:
Students may not keep library books more than a fortnight.
Neither may nor might is normally used to report permission. Can or could are used instead, though might in indirect speech sometimes conveys the idea of permission being given or asked for in the past:
He said Mary might stay there for a week,
Helen asked if she might come to the party.
3. By using the verbs may or might one can also ask a polite question or make an offer, or an introductory remark:
May I have your name, please?
Might I offer you a drink?
It may be added that...
[p.14:] It may be mentioned in passing that....
4. Might and sometimes may are used informally with (just) as well to suggest either that one situation is more preferable than another, or that both situations are equally unpleasant:
If I gotta wait for him, I might as well wait for you too, mightn't I?
If this is true, we might just as well regard ourselves as colonies of viruses.
5. Depending upon the context, the verb might can also be used to give advice, or to make a suggestion, a tentative or sarcastic request, or to reproach somebody if she or he is reluctant to do something:
You might go and see what's going on there.
I think you might explain that remark.
You might be more polite to her.
You might look where you are going.
Might with the perfect infinitive can also refer to some event in the past which was possible but didn't in fact happen:
You might have spoken to her before she left.
6. Sentences with may can express hopes and wishes:
May he justify our hopes.
May God be with you.
Long may she live.
Note the word order in these sentences (see also 8.6. Meaning and Use of The Subjunctive Mood).
7. Both may and might can be used in subordinate clauses of purpose introduced by so that or in order that:
They struggle to cure diseases so that people may live longer.
Descriptive Contexts
The verbs may and might are much more common in descriptive sentences expressing the possibility that something is or will be happening. They show that the speaker thinks that something is likely to happen in the future or that it seems to be happening at the moment of speaking. The speaker is not certain that what he is speaking about is actually taking place; he or she is only considering, entertaining or suggesting a possibility that something is or will be happening:
Some sort of sense about nuclear armament might one day arise.
She might even come out of it better than he did.
She may be using her maiden name now.
[p.15:] He may be the right man.
Bill may not be at home.
Margaret said Nancy mightn 't know which way to turn.
This may or may not happen.
He might not need them.
Note that the negative sentences He may / might not refuse to come tomorrow and He couldn 't refuse to come tomorrow have quite different meanings: the former means that it is possible that he will not refuse to come (= Может быть, oн не откажется), while the latter implies that it is not possible that he will refuse to do it (= Вряд ли он откажется / отказался бы).
With perfect infinitives may or might express the speaker's opinion about the possibility that something actually occurred in the past. The sentence They might have seen us means that though the speaker is not quite sure that "they" saw "us", he still believes that it is likely that they did:
Jim might have handed the material over to Mr. Smith.
Mrs. Palgrave seemed not only far away; she might never have existed.
The jubilation in the city may have led him to overestimate his popular support in the area.
May and sometimes might can be used in concessive constructions to refer to a situation which can be only reluctantly admitted or is just unimportant in view of what the speaker is saying:
Ingenious though these techniques may be, they hardly can be considered practical.
Stupid as he might be, I hope he will understand me.
They may be seven thousand miles away but they know what's going on here.
WILL AND WOULD
Like all subject-oriented modals these verbs commonly express internal modality; they indicate that the subject of the sentence intends or is willing to perform the action denoted by the infinitive or that the characteristics of the subject are such that an actual performance of the action can be taken almost for granted.
Creative Contexts
The verbs will and would are often used in creative contexts.
1. One use of will in creative contexts is to make predictions about the future. In this case will can be used with all the personal pronouns (I, [p.16:] we, you, he, she, they, it), while shall is sometimes used only with I and we (for more detail about shall, see below). In this use the verbs will and shall are usually thought of as auxiliary verbs of the future tense forms (see 6.3. Future Tenses):
Follow the advice we give in this book and you will attain all your health and fitness goals.
He 'll be on holiday next week.
It will be lovely to see you next week.
When Achilles reaches the point from which the tortoise starts the tortoise will have advanced to a farther point.
We shall celebrate our fiftieth wedding anniversary next month.
In many textbooks the short (contracted) form 'll is treated as an ambiguous form which can be replaced either by will or by shall. It should be noticed, however, that since the sound [S]never disappears the form 'll can only be the contracted form of the verb will. If 'll follows the first person pronouns I and we, only will can be viewed as its alternative. In the case of I will (We will)the sentence fairly often refers to one's willingness or decision to do something rather than to "pure" future events. If the context supports the idea of intention, promise, or willingness, the speaker uses the full verb will, rather than its contracted form ’ ll. The meaning of the sentence I'll be right back is more likely to express the idea of a mere future. In negative sentences the form won't rather than 'll not is commonly used.
Questioning your own intentions is unusual; hence, the form Will I...? is sometimes used with infinitives, active or passive, denoting future actions which do not depend on the speaker. In the following dialogue the doctor (I)and his terminally ill patient (he)are discussing the possibility of an assisted suicide. The use of will refers to what is going to happen to the patient rather than to what the patient intends to do:
And he said, "I won't have any pain?”
I said, "No."
He said, "Will I be struggling? Will it be hard for my wife?"
And I said, "No, none of that. "
He said, "I will die.'"
And I said, "Yes."
The structure Shall I + active infinitive...? in most cases is interpreted as expressing the speaker's wish to know whether the person he is talking to would mind if he (the speaker) did something. Usually, it implies that the speaker is prepared to do what he is talking about and is expecting approval from the addressee:
[p.17:] Shall I tell her that you 're nurturing a secret passion?
Since one can never be quite sure about what precisely is going to happen in the future, the notion of futurity in general carries heavy implications. Referring to future events ("pure" future) is only one of many uses of the verb will.
2. Will may be used with pronouns of all persons to indicate the subject's willingness to do something. Usually will is not contracted in these cases. A declarative sentence with the first person subject shows that the speaker (= the subject of the sentence) has just made a decision or promise to do something:
/ will certainly help her.
I will stop smoking.
Ring him — or I will, if you like.
It might sound impolite to make direct statements about whether the person you are taking to is willing to do something or not. So in some cases the structure you will/would expressing willingness may be found in sentences like:
Try as you will / would, you won't be able to do it.
Say what you will, Jack is a complete failure.
Do as you will.
By using will in statements with the second person subject (you)the speaker may give a straightforward instruction or an order:
You will start work tomorrow at 6.
You will give it to me.
Will you sit still!
In sentences with the third person subject will and would arecommonly used to refer to someone's willingness or unwillingness to do something:
He will readily accept that.
They wouldn 't keep a dog in their house.
Negative statements with won't or wouldn't may indicate refusal:
She won't do that for us.
I won't tell you anything.
He wouldn't let you go.
Sentences with will can be sometimes interpreted as promises or threats by the speaker:
They will pay for that.
You won't get away with that.
In interrogative sentences with the second or third person subject will may refer to what someone intends to do:
[p.18:] Where will they go?
Will you be coming later?
3. Will and won't in questions with the second person subject may be used to make polite requests for action:
Will you have some more?
Won 't you come in?
Will you go and see him now?
To make requests even more polite or tentative the verb would or its negative form wouldn 't is used:
Oh! Wouldn 't you have some? There's another bottle.
Oh! Before you sit down, would you be an absolute dear and do something for me?
4. Both will (for present time) and would (for past time) can be used in sentences referring to habitual or characteristic behaviour of people or to inherent qualities of things:
You will keep making this silly mistake.
Boys will be boys.
He would borrow my things without asking.
Some men would do more for a dog than they would do for a wife.
This car will do 100 m.p.h.
The room will seat about 50.
Note that would in this case is used only for repeated actions (not for states) in the past. Negative statements with inanimate subjects imply that despite all our efforts we did not succeed in making the objects do what we want:
The car won't / wouldn't start.
The window won't/wouldn't open.
5. Will and would may be used in the subordinate clause of a conditional sentence. In these cases the if -clause refers either to the subject's willingness and expresses a polite request, or to the habitual behaviour of the subject of the clause:
If he will be kind enough to fill this form, I'll have his baggage brought in.
Give me this book, if you would.
If you will get drunk every night she will divorce you.
Will is also used when the if -clause, in fact, describes a result of the action of the main clause, i.e. something which will follow if the action is performed:
If it will make me happier I'll give up smoking (cf.: If I give up smoking, it will make me happier).
[p.19:] 6. Would (in subordinate clauses) expresses the idea of future in the past, i.e. it shows that an action referred to by the infinitive is in the future with respect to the situation the speaker is talking about:
They were all aware that it would allow the USA to gain an unbeatable advantage.
In reported speech after a past verb in the main clause would is mostly used instead of will and shall;
I said I would (or should) be seeing Jack come the following week. He said he would be seeing Jack the following week.
7. Would can also be used in place of the simple present or future tense to make the statement sound more tentative, more polite or less definite (Russian often uses past tense + бы):
That would be more reasonable.
I would think he will sign the contract.
You are rarely able to do it as often as you would like.
Jim would be the one to talk to her.
The food here comprises a collection of cold soups you would never find in a Japanese restaurant.
8. Would {wouldn't)is used after if only and I wish in sentences expressing the speaker's willingness or insistence that something should (or should not) happen:
If only you wouldn't keep making this silly mistake!
I wish you would come tomorrow.
The last sentence is much more emphatic than Will you come tomorrow? and implies that the speaker is aware that the realization of his wish is very unlikely. With would + perfect infinitive the speaker expresses his regret that something didn't happen:
If only they 'd have got him!
Note also the forms would rather and would sooner which are used to express preference:
/ would rather it hadn 't been him.
He would rather live in his native country than go elsewhere.
Note that the phrase would like is followed by an infinitive, not a gerund:
Would you like to be involved?
I would like to see him.
I would like to have seen him (or I'd have liked to have seen him).
The last sentence implies that the speaker did not see "him".
[p.20:] Where will they go? Will you be coming later?
9. Would is also used in formal expressions like:
Would that it were not so! — Если бы это было не так!
Would that we had seen him before he went to London.
Descriptive Contexts
In descriptive use the verbs will and would express the speaker's belief or conjecture as to what might be the case. Based only on common sense, the speaker is providing his opinion about something:
You will already be familiar with how the computer works.
Would that be what you 're looking for?
He wouldn 't be sorry, I suppose.
You wouldn't know my friend.
It is, as you will see, an essential branch of each of our studies.
Will or would with the perfect infinitive may be used to indicate that what the speaker is guessing about the past might be true: I met a charming girl yesterday. — That will / would have been my sister.
That will /would have been in the seventies.
NECESSITY
If it is necessary for someone to do something or for something to happen, there is usually some important reason for it: either it is needed by someone in order to achieve a particular aim or it is the only way out of some particular situation. The verb must shows that the speaker believes it is necessary or important for someone to do something or that something should be done. Must is contrasted with the structures have + to-infinitive and be + to-infinitive. The verbs shall, should and ought indicate the speaker's wish or belief that the most appropriate thing to do at the moment is for the subject of the sentence to perform the action denoted by the infinitive. The verb need refers to actions beneficial to the subject of the sentence.
MUST
The verb must is a speaker-oriented modal expressing external necessity.
Creative Contexts ''
Must is used in creative contexts to indicate that in the speaker's opinion if is someone's obligation or duty to do something.
[p.21:] 1. The speaker is expressing his authority by directly imposing an obligation on someone or giving them orders:
You must let me out of here at once.
Six of your men must hold the tunnel at all costs.
2. Must is also used to introduce a general rule or pattern of behaviour which is considered by the speaker as the only possible and rightful one in the current situation:
In business you must be clever.
You must never diet so quickly that you lose the muscle tissue thatgives your body its shape.
You must work out what suits you best.
The lesson is that you must always keep your defences strong so that you are prepared for any situation.
3. The speaker is giving his or her firm opinion as to what exactly will be the right thing to do. This may be regarded as an instruction, or pressing advice, or a decision on the speaker's part:
Millions of people must think that the Emperor's grandson is utterly happy.
This is a problem any semantic theory must face.
But this was all nonsense. One must think of something better than this.
This fact must not be overlooked for it is relevant to a proper understanding of his later poems.
The speaker may express his or her own sense of inner compulsion by saying I must:
If you don't go, I'm afraid I must.
Lady, I must see your face.
4. Negative sentences with the verb must are interpreted as "it is necessary for someone not to do something", i. e. must not may express prohibition or a strong demand not to do something:
They must not stand aside except on your personal order.
Odysseus binds himself to the mast with orders that he must not be released.
Interrogative sentences show that the speaker is reluctant to do something or let something happen:
Must you interrupt?
Must they come?
Must I show him all the drawings?
[p.22:]5. With the perfect infinitive the verb must may sometimes be used to indicate that in order for something to happen it is necessary for some other thing to have happened first:
In order to get the job one must have completed a secretarial course.
Must is not changed when used in reported speech after a past reporting verb:
Jack said he must give a straight answer to the question.
Descriptive Contexts
In descriptive contexts must indicates that the speaker believes that what he is saying is certainly true:
How come you're the friend of Judge's boy? You must be telling another lie!
What a bloody fool must I look!
I'm destitute. Without your help I must starve.
With must + perfect infinitive the speaker is making an assumption about the past:
I think she must have been feeling much the same as I was....
He may have suspected, he couldn 't have been certain, and afterwards he must have been pretty sure he 'd made a mistake.
Must is not used in negative or interrogative descriptive sentences. Can't or couldn 'i is used instead:
He can't be telling the truth (* He mustn 't be telling the truth).
She couldn't have been feeling much the same as I was (*She mustn't have been feeling...).
5.2. HAVE to-infinitive
Must as a speaker-oriented modal is contrasted with the structures have + to-infinitive and have got + to-infinitive expressing internal necessity, i.e. the subject of a sentence is fully aware that for some reason he has no choice but to do something.
1. If one has to do something, one feels that it is their duty, responsibility or obligation to do it:
He has to be with his ailing father.
If inflation and house prices are taken into account, even £50,000 is hardly a fortune for a man who has to find a job and keep a family.
I think we have got to start again and go back to first principles.
[p.23:] 2. There maybe a sense of inevitability in the actions which have to be carried out. One is forced to do something in order to get out of a worrying situation or to achieve some goal:
Having lost the stars it's made, Broadway now has to look elsewhere for bankable names.
The modern artist —finally severed from any meaningful, coherent tradition — has to invent himself from scratch.
Any ambitions we have have got to be within the terms of these realities.
3. Telling someone what they have to do may be sometimes considered as giving them instructions or advice:
You have to go to bed at II p.m.
But you can't be generous, you have to go for the best person for the job.
4. The negative forms don't have to and haven't got to indicate that someone is free to do or not to do something. If you don't have to do something there are neither circumstances nor reason why you should do it. It is absence of obligation or necessity that is implied by the sentences containing the negative forms of have + to-infinitive:
He doesn 't have to look after a family.
So the new film does not have to submit itself to comparison, in any case it stands up quite sturdily on its own.
This sad state of affairs does not have to continue.
She didn 't have to fight the whole world to pursue her chosen career.
5. Have + to-infinitive can be also found in descriptive contexts. The speaker has solid grounds to believe that what he is saying is true:
Someone's calling. That has to be your mother.
5.3. BE + TO-INFINITIVE
The structure be + to-infinitive, like the modal verb must, is used (in the present and past indefinite tense) to express external necessity, i.e. the necessity imposed on the subject of a sentence from the outside of the current situation. Sentences containing be + to-infinitive suggest that the necessity or obligation to do something is just a fact of life.
1. The speaker describes the way things stand at the moment and implies that there is no reason for ignoring them:
The independent contractor is one who has agreed to do apiece of work but is to be held free to choose his own method of doing it.
Nobody knows what is to become of him.
[p.24:] This estimate is to be compared with the latest figures from the National Institute.
The transformation of brutalized warriors of the 10th century into the Christian knights of the 11th was to have a crucial effect upon Christianity's relationship with Islam.
2. Be + to-infinitive is also used to indicate that something is arranged, planned or agreed upon:
To day the General is to visit Gettysburg.
She is to be married next month.
We are to be there by ten.
3. Be + to-infinitive is often used in notices, regulations and instructions:
These tablets are to be kept out of the reach of children.
No one is to leave this building until 5.
You are to do your homework before you watch TV.
4. In formal texts this structure can be used in introductory phrases like It is to be noted / understood / expected that...; Attention is to be called to the fact that..., etc.
5. The structure can be used in the past to refer to some planned or expected events which, in fact, did not happen. In this case the perfect infinitive is used:
Bad weather yesterday postponed the launch of the space shuttle Atlantis, which was to have sent a spacecraft to Jupiter.
6.In conditional sentences the subjunctive were + to-infinitive makes a condition sound less probable:
Even if she were to win each of the last four tournaments she still might not win the Challenge Cup. 7/ 8. Добавка: 1) в прид. услов. be to также означает желание, стремление сделать что-л., “мы хотим”; 2) Формы was / were to также могут означать “было предназначено/ было суждено” (чаще о людях), - о реальных событиях в прошлом, которые имели место уже после описанного эпизода:
If British business is to have a successful future, companies must establish a firm foothold in Europe. If that situation is to change, physicists must have an unflagging commitment to education. It had already suffered a major fire but worse was still to come. He met Heracles, who was to become his junior colleague, then his rival, and who was to end as bishop of Alexandria.
SHALL
The verbs shall, should and ought are speaker-oriented modal verbs expressing external necessity. They are used to indicate that from the speaker's point of view a particular action is most appropriate in the current
Creative Contexts
1. In creative sentences with the first person subject;, shall may be sometimes used for pure future (prediction): the speaker is describing what he or she is going to do or what is going to happen to the speaker in the future:
[p.25:] The scientists can only wait and hope. Which is what I shall be doing for the next three months.
I shall argue later that this contradiction between mechanistic determinism and free will is a misunderstanding.
We shall not deal with this problem here.
2. Shall is used in sentences with the second and third person subject to show that the speaker is predicting something inevitable:
Time has no limit, neither top nor bottom, it has always been and shall be for evermore.
We may be assured that on the Judgement Day "no one shall be made to answer for what he knows nothing of".
This use of shall is now obsolete.
3. Since the verb shall implies a degree of inevitability about future events, this modal verb is often used in contexts of exhortation, orders, directions, instructions and commands, and is quite commonly found in formal and legalistic English:
The doctrine of political neutrality does not demand that the government shall avoid promoting unacceptable ideals.
They can declare that a certain day shall be a national holiday.
The writs, i. e. the King's commands that a person shall appear in one of the King’s Courts in answer to a claim, are issued in his name.
A proposal which restricts liberty shall not be accepted unless supported by good reasons.
4. By using interrogative sentences Shall I.....? the speaker is asking for someone's opinion, advice or suggestion as to what the speaker is going to do;
Shall I ring at 11 p.m.?
What shall I do for him?
Descriptive Contexts
In descriptive contexts the verb shall is primarily used to indicate that the speaker strongly believes that something will definitely happen. It does not carry additional implications of insistence or command. It is commonly used with a future time reference and is not found with the perfect infinitive:
If you send me this book, I shall always be grateful.
[p.26:] 5.5. SHOULD and OUGHT
Should and ought are speaker-oriented modal verbs which the speaker may use to express his or her opinion of what is the best thing to do at the moment or of what is worth, doing in the circumstances.
Creative Contexts
1. In creative contexts should and ought indicate that someone's action, behaviour or attitude is reasonable, appropriate or morally right:
People want high quality service, and that's what money should be.
At what stage in his or her career should a singer decide to quit the stage and concert platform?
The principles that the therapist and patient should adhere to are as follows.
There ought to be a right to protest in public.
We ought not to be surprised to find it missing.
The exercise of authority should make no difference to what its subjects ought to do, for it ought to direct them to do what they ought to do in any event.
Sentences with should or ought + perfect infinitive refer to some past action or event which, in fact, did not happen:
He was angry at his wife for sheltering in the hut when she should have been outside.
I think someone else should have done it because it was not our responsibility.
There is a very slight difference between these verbs: while should is quite appropriate when the speaker is expressing his or her own opinion, the verb ought is primarily used when the speaker is appealing to duties, laws and recommendations which have a more objective force.
2. It is only natural to use these verbs to give advice or to reproach someone for someone's action or attitude:
You should remember that adequate physical exercise is essential to good health.
You ought to be ashamed of yourself.
You shouldn 't talk to her like that.
You shouldn 'i have talked to her like that.
Should is common in sentences expressing the speaker's advice in the "if Iwere you” situations:
[p. 27:] (If I were you) 1 should have accepted this proposal.
Note that sentences with should + hear, see, etc. may sometimes mean "It is a pity that someone did not see, hear.... something unusual". (Cf. Russian phrases Ты бы видел):
You should hear the way he talks to his father.
3. Should in interrogative sentences may be used to ask for advice, information, permission or someone's opinion about what you are going to do:
We want a computer program which, given a map and asked "how should I go from A to E?" will answer "A-C-D-E".
Should I not carry on as before but take his advice?
Shouldn't I send her a letter?
Who do you think I should send this letter to?
Sentences beginning with Why should I..,? are usually considered as expressing the speaker's belief that there is no reason for him or her to do something:
Why should 1 tell him all that?
4, Should can be used in object clauses when the main clause contains nouns, verbs or adjectives expressing the idea of insistence, importance or necessity (see also 8.6. Meaning and Use of The Subjunctive Mood):
The child's welfare required that she should be adopted by the foster parents with whom she had lived for three years.
It is sometimes more important that the law should be certain than that it should be perfect.
In American English these should- structuresare less common and the present subjunctive is used instead:
It is important that she be adopted by the foster parents.
This kind of sentence sounds rather formal and in a conversational style other ways of expressing the same idea may be found.
Should is also sometimes used in adverbial clauses of purpose after the conjunctions so that, in order that, lest, although purpose clauses without should are more usual:
The government issued a warning in order that people should be aware of the danger.
The government issued a warning in order that people are (or will be) aware of the danger.
[p.28:] Descriptive Contexts
1. The verbs should and ought in descriptive contexts indicate that the speaker is almost certain that something is happening or is very likely to happen:
The CBI called for Britain to enter the European exchange rate mechanism early next year when inflation should befalling.
Half the pleasure of a southern Chinese meal ought to be the rice; its humble utility need not obscure its worth.
What ought to be exciting about her is her unpredictability.
Sentences with should or ought + perfect infinitive refer to something which the speaker believes probably happened in the past:
There should have been a lot of students at the meeting yesterday.
2. Should is also used in conditional clauses or in clauses of reason after in case to show that the probability of the described course of action is rather low. In Russian we use the words вдруг, все-таки in these cases:
If he should win the competition we 'II send him to France.
Should he win he’ll get a good sum of money.
I'll bring the bag back in case someone should take it.
The use of should in subordinate that- clausesafter some verbs and adjectives expressing surprise, confusion, pleasure, regret or disapproval is naturally related to a low probability of the described event which, nevertheless, occurred. Note that the present subjunctive is not possible in sentences of this kind:
It is strange that she should be here.
I'm horrified that she should say that sort of thing to Jim.
It seems inevitable that the development of the mechanical clock should have been primarily due to the Church.
Emotional should is usually found in object clauses after I regret / wonder, am sorry / surprised/ astonished / annoyed / content / satisfied, etc., in subject clauses (introduced by the formal it)after It is wonderful / natural / strange / singular / inconceivable / absurd / terrible / odd / monstrous / queer that.., It is a pity /shame / wonder, etc. that.., and It infuriated / outraged / surprised / startled /puzzled, etc. me that..., It strikes me as odd / funny /unusual, etc. that... It is also used in some set expressions:
That it should come to this!
To think that it should come to this
To think that it should have happened to me!
And who should it be but…
[p.29:] 5.6. NEED
The verb need can be used both as an ordinary notional verb and as a modal auxiliary verb. As an ordinary verb, need takes all the forms of a regular transitive verb and may be followed by a to -infinitive:
He needs 25 signatures.
They will need 400,000 tons of food aid.
Don 't you need to be highly educated to understand it?
They may need to defend their rights against that authority.
The modal verb need is virtually restricted to non-assertive contexts, i. e. broad negative contexts and sometimes questions:
/ don't think you need worry.
No one need remain ignorant of his duties and obligations.
Need there be this polarized division between tradition and modernity, this crude "battle of styles"?
Need (both ordinary and modal) is a subject-oriented verb expressing internal necessity: it is the qualities of the subject of a sentence that seem to make the situation necessary or unnecessary.
Creative Contexts
1. Need is used almost exclusively in creative contexts to indicate that it is important for the subject to do something because it may help achieve some other end. The negative forms needn 't and don't need imply that there is no reason why the subject should do something:
They all realized that they needn't bother to play hard any more.
Our company would like to end up with the situation where no one need walk more than 300 yards to use their phone.
The others don't need to know that.
2. There is a slight difference between needn't and don't need in that the former usually refers to immediate necessity, whereas the latter is more appropriate to describe some sort of general necessity:
/ don't need to be more famous.
You don't need to be a super-athlete to succeed.
You needn't glare at me like that!
|
| Поделиться: |
Поиск по сайту
Все права принадлежать их авторам. Данный сайт не претендует на авторства, а предоставляет бесплатное использование.
Дата создания страницы: 2021-10-09 Нарушение авторских прав и Нарушение персональных данных