According to Palacios Martinez (2001:480), different studies on the expression of negation in several non-standard varieties of English also draw our attention to multiple negative structures. Crystal (1995:326), for example, records the existence of treble and quadruple negatives in the English spoken in Farnworth, a municipal borough in the Greater Bolton area, north of Manchester. Trudgill (1990:13) also mentions that many non-standard dialects of British English such as Cockney have retained the old negative form, so that it is possible to come across expressions such as I don 't want no dinner. We also learn that in general Scottish English, multiple negation seems to be excluded from the system; however, in the Glasgow dialect, multiple negation is quite common. Finally, Labov (1972a, 1972b) and Baugh (1983) among others explain in great detail the expression of multiple negation in Black English Vernacular. Fascinating examples like the following are recorded: It ain't no cat can't get in no coop; Back in them times, there ain't no kid around that ain't-wasn't even thinkin' about smokin' no reefers (Labov, 1972:130); It ain't no way no girl can't wear no platforms to no amusement park (Baugh, 1983:83).
The rise and decline of multiple negation has been one of the central issues in the study of English negation and called forth active discussions, but there seems to be no agreement about the date when the decline of multiple negation begins to take place. This is mainly because the definitions of multiple negation vary from one scholar to another depending on the period(s) under discussion.
From all the studies available on multiple negation, Jespersen's account is no doubt the most complete, thorough and illustrative. He first refers to cases where negation expresses a positive meaning (e.g. not without some doubt), and then he explains what he calls «cumulative negation» or structures of double negatives as they are found in present-day non-standard English (such as He didn't find nothing). In his view, the existence of these constructions may be explained by the emotional character of repeated negation. As a separate variety of multiple negation he treated what might be called «resumptive negation». This is especially frequent when not is followed by a disjunctive combination with neither…nor or a restrictive addition with not even: «he cannot sleep neither at night nor in the daytime» or «he cannot sleep, not even after taking an opiate». A special case of «resumptive negation» is seen when not is softened down by an added hardly, which in itself would have been sufficient to express the idea: «He wasn’t changed at all hardly» (R. Kipling).
Closely connected with «resumptive negation» is paratactic negation: a negative is placed in a clause dependant on a verb of negative import, e.g «deny, forbid, hinder, doubt», as if the clause had been an independent sentence, or as if the corresponding positive verb had been used in the main sentence, e.g. «It never occurred to me to doubt that your work… would not advance our common object in the highest degree».
|
|
To speak about «resumptive negation», it is a second class of emphatic negation comprises, the characteristic of which is that after a negative sentence has been completed, something is added in a negative form with the obvious result that the negative result is heightened….In its pure form, the supplementary negative is added outside the frame of the first sentence, generally as an afterthought, as in ‘I shall never do it, not under any circumstances, not on any condition, neither at home nor abroad’, etc.
This type of negation can be divided into three categories:
Type I:
(1) a. He cannot sleep, neither at night nor in the daytime.
b. He cannot sleep, not even after taking an opiate.
c. He has no money, not so much as a dime
d. Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse.
Type II
The second type is not cited by Jespersen or Van der Wouden (as a separate type), nor elsewhere, except among a listing of types of «multiple negations’ in (Lawler 1977):
(2) a. I can’t go to the party, not with my clothes looking like this.
b. No, you may not borrow the car, not without doing your homework first.
c. You won’t be offered the job, not if I have anything to do with it.
d. I don’t have time to meet with you, not this afternoon anyway.
e. Would you use a shotgun to kill an elephant? Not and live to tell about it.
f. Can linguists study negation? Not and stay sane they can’t. (Lawler)
Type III
(3) That isn’t really legal, I don’t believe.
Type III is different from types I and II in that the second negated phrase contains a propositional attitude verb, and the proposition expressed by the main clause plays the role, semantically, of the object of that verb. Types I and II have no propositional attitude verb in the second phrase; rather, that phrase most resembles an adjunct to the main clause. (Dowty, 2008)
Jespersen (1940:451), referring to the double (or treble) attraction, states that «in Elizabethan English this particular kind of repeated negation is comparatively rare, while the «resumptive accumulation» is frequent».
On the other hand, Iyeiri (2001:128, 138, 142), whose major concern is Middle English, classifies multiple negation into the following three types:
Type I multiple negation with the negative adverb ne (ne…not)
Nare noman ells dead ne sic ne unsele (Poema Morale, 201)
Type II multiple negation with conjunctive ne/nor
Ne ƥu ne cumest noʒt in Scotlonde (The Owl and the Nightingale, 908)
Type III multiple negation with the combination of not, neither, never, no, ets.
Ne neuer shal none be/born fairer than she (Reynard the Fox, 79/8)
|
|
As an overall conclusion, Iyeiri (2001:155) remarks that « muchof the declining process of multiple negation, in fact, takes place during the Middle English period».
Seright's(1966) study is much more restricted than Jespersen's. He confines himself to the analysis of standard double negative constructions, such as It is not inconceivable or It is not impossible. These sentences contain a negative verb or clause negation followed by a case of local negation, inconceivable and impossible, which constitute two examples of morphological or affixal negation. In his view, numerous instances of such standard double-negative constructions can be found and, in contrast to the examples typical of non-standard English such as They don't do nothing, they are generally «limited to the speech of the educated» (Seright, 1966:123). Mention is also made of sequences such as Not to mash nor break the grains, which contain a negative correlative conjunctive. Seright(1966) insists that the use of double negatives of this type is quite wide. (Palacios Martinez, 2001:480)
Rissanen (1999:272) observes that multiple negation was common in the sixteenth century. It must be noted here that Rissanen's definition of multiple negation is broad, as is evident from the four examples he gives:
(1) They cowd not fynd no londe at iiij score fadom (Torkington, 62)
(2) that the Capper nor none other persone shalnot take by hym self or any other persone to his use… (Statutes, III 34)
(3) I am not asham'd of my Name– nor my Face neither. (Vanbrugh, II.III)
(4) that no woman has; nor neuer none Shall mistris be of it, (Shakespeare, Twelfth Night, III.I)
Baker (1970) analyses what he calls «logical double sentences». From the perspective of the generative theory of that time, he formulates a polarity-reversal rule to explain the grammaticality of sentences such as There isn 't anyone in this camp who wouldn't rather be in Montpelier. The polarity-reversal rule operates on the cycle of the subordinate clause as it changes the derivational feature associated with would rather to [+ negative]. Its operation on the cycle of the main clause changes the polarity of would rather from [+ negative] to [– negative] and the polarity of anyone from [– negative] to [+ negative]. Attention is also paid to what he defines as pseudo-negative sentences, that is, verbal complements found with predicates such as surprised, disappointed, relieved, glad, sorry, lucky, odd or strange, which provide suitable environments for any, ever, and other elements normally required in negative contexts (e.g. We're surprised that anyone bought anything at all; John is sorry that anything happened; It's strange that anyone could solve the mystery in such short order). (Palacios Martinez, 2001:481)
Horn (1991), for his part, discusses the expression of litotes by means of double negative constructions. By litotes is meant the «a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive evaluation. Thus «not unkindly» actually means «kindly», though the positive effect is weakened and some lack of the speaker's confidence in his statement is implied. The first component of a litotes is always the negative particle «not», while the second, always negative in semantics, varies in form from a negatively affixed word (as above) to a negative phrase.
|
|
Litotes is especially expressive when the semantic centre of the whole structure is stylistically or/and emotionally coloured, as in the case of the following occasional creations: «Her face was not unhandsome» (A.H.) or «Her face was not unpretty».
The function of litotes has much in common with that of understatement – both weaken the effect of the utterance. The uniqueness of litotes lies in its specific «double negative» structure and in its weakening only the positive evaluation.
Pragmatically, the use of double negatives as in «It's not impossible» may be justified, according to Horn, by a series of motivations: politeness (the speaker does not want to commit oneself to a particular option), irony (the speaker acts as if hesitant or unsure on purpose), weight or impressiveness of style (the speaker intends to convey formality to the interlocutor), absence of corresponding positive (there is no word to refer to the opposite term), parallelism of structure (a similar construction was used before), quality (the speaker is neither sure nor unsure about what is being said) and minimisation of processing (in contexts of direct rebuttal or contradiction as a reply to a previous assertion).
Finally, Wouden (1997) devotes part three of his book on negative contexts to the study of multiple negation in different languages. For this scholar the addition of a negative to an already negative construction may lead to the following possibilities: (I) the structure containing various negatives may be
equivalent to a single one as in some varieties of sub-standard English, e.g. I didn 't see nobody nowhere; (II) the two negatives may weaken each other as in the case of litotes above, e.g. She's not an unattractive woman; (III) the two negatives cancel each other out as in logic, giving as result no negation, e.g. Neighbours should not be uncooperative; and (IV) the two negatives intensify each other, e.g. He never stops working, not even at Christmas. As can be easily gathered from the previous account, Wouden's analysis of multiple negation is mainly semantic rather than syntactic; the following taxonomy of multiple negation is derived from each of the four possibilities explained above: (I) negative concord, (II) litotes, (III) denial and (IV) emphatic negation. (Palacios Martinez, 2001:481–482)
3. Analysis of Maylory’s Morte Darthur
The term «multiple negation» or «double negation» are often used ambiguously. Thus, for example they may be taken to refer to sentences like Not many of the boys didn’t talk to John, as in McCawley (1973:206). Though this is unmistakably a negative sentence, its effect is quite the opposite, the force for the assertion having been somewhat weakened by the use of two negatives instead of a straightforward affirmative (cf. Jespersen 1940:449). In popular terms, the negative in this sentence «cancel each other out» and are interpreted as a resulting positive, as in logic or mathematics. Seright (1966:124) suggested that the use of this tipe of multiple negation, which included constructions like it is not unlikely that …, is characteristic of educated usage; according to Patridge (1971:88) it is a type of construction peculiar to literary English.
Alternatively, the terms are used to describe negative sentences with more than one negative in which the negatives do not cancel each other out. For this type of negation Joly adopts the term «compound negation», as opposed to «simple negation».
Such sentences as example of which might be I ain’t got no time for no liquor (J.D. Salinger The Catcher in the Rye 1975:88, Penguin), are negative in meaning irrespective of the actual number of negatives they contain, because the negatives together serve to negate the sentences in which they occur. In contrast to the first type of multiple negation, which is often referred to as «logical», Seright observes that the second type is found only in «the uncultivated speech» ofthe uneducated (1966:123). «Hie same point of view is found in Quirk et al, (1985:799), who distinguish between the two types of double negation by identifying the first type with Standard English and the second with non-standard English. Though double negation is undeniably a feature of non-standard English, of both British and American English dialects, it also occurs in certain forms of the standard. Both types of multiple negation occur in the Morte Dathur, though the former is considerably less frequent than the latter. Here are the examples of the logical type of multiple negation:
(1) For I dere say there is no knight in this contrey that is nat in Arthures court that dare do batayle wyth sir Blamour de Ganys (220.3–4)
(2) Had nat ye bene, we had nat loste sir Trystram (282.17–18)
(3)… they founde nother man, nother woman that he ne was dede by the vengeaunce of Oure Lorde (493.37)
It goes without saying that the two types of construction do not happily coexist, particularly in a written text. After all, they each require a completely different interpretation, the one with a positive the otherwith a negative result. In the spoken language, no such problems exist As Labov (l972a:146) remarks: «When anunderlying double negative [i.e. with a positive meaning] is intended, speakers of nonstandard dialects use the same device as speakers of standard English: heavy stress on both negatives», Naturally, such a disambiguating device is not available in the written language. While the second type of multiple negation has been found since the Old English period, the rareness in the Morte Darthur of the first type of construction suggests that the logical type of multiple negation is a later development in the system of English negation.
To begin with, this definition lacks precision in that it covert a number of negative constructions which are not strictly speaking instances of multiple negation. To illustrate this point the following examples may be cited from the Morte Darthur
(4) for there was nother kynge, cayser, nother knyght that day (C 216.21:22)
(5) and ye shall have no shame nor velony (C 140.22)
(6) and woldyst never be made neyssh nother by watir nother by fyre (C 446.25–26)
Strictly speaking, all three instances would be covered by Barber’s definition – «two or more negative words are used to negate the sentence; these negatives do not cancel each other out». Even so, in a modernised form (4) would be fully acceptable in formal standard English today. It might be paraphrased as «for there was neither king, emperor nor knight that day…» (cf. Quirk et al. 1985:763 and 938).
Example (5) would likewise be acceptable in present-day standard English, though instead of no, neither would normally be used: «and you will have neither shame nor villainy» (cf. Quirk et al. 1985:938). According to Seright (1966:125), the construction would have to be rephrased as «and you will not have either shame or villainy» in order to be fully acceptable.
Example (6) is belonging to the category of resumptive negation. The negative effect in sentences like this is heightened, and the function of the tag seems to that of an afterthought which simultaneously emphasises the negation.
(7) that by no meany I can nat put her fro me (C 525.37–38)
(8) that he sholde never do none inchauntemente uppon hir (C 93.18)
(9) and horse ne harneyse gettvst thou none of myne (C 164.24–25)
(10) but in no wyse he wolde nat juste no more (C 303.17–18)
(11) yette woll I nat wyghte my lady to be in no joupardye (C 94.35–36)
(12) they had no joye to receyve no yeftes of a berdles boy (C 40. 10–11)
These examples were found in direct speech as well as in narrative passages of the Mort Darthur. This fact, combined with the frequency with which multiple negation is attested in the text, suggests that at the time it must still have been regarded as a perfectly acceptable device which could be employed in most contexts and registers. In his own prose, mostly prologues and epilogues to the books he printed and therefore written in a highly formal style, Caxton lokiwise used multiple negation. In this respect, usage has clearly undergone aconsiderable change in the course of time. Multiple negation occurs much less frequently in the Morte Darthur than during the Old English period, and in the text itself the disappearing process is very much in evidence.
The definition does not cover negative sentence with correlative pairs or triplets, such as neither … nor or neither… nor … nor, asthese negatives do not function independently but only in conjunction with each other, offering alternatives within the sentence. Sentence with a negative such as not, never or no followed be the negative conjunction nor are similarly excluded. Such sentences are to be interpreted as containing elliptical phrases or clauses, which offer alternatives to the negative statement made in the preceding clause. Thus, (5) may be expanded as follows: and you will have no shame, nor will you have any villainy. Sentence like (9), in which nor (or any of its Middle English equivalents) precedes any negative words in the sentences covered bythe definition. The reason for this is the following. As inEnglish a negative is generally found as early in the sentence as possible (Jespersen 1940:426), a sentence which only has the negative conjunction nor or even a correlative construction like neither…nor as part of one of its opening constituents would already from its very beginning be interpreted as negative, irrespective of whether or not the negative is part ofan elliptical construction with nor or with neither … nor. Any additional negatives further on in the sentence would therefore turn the sentence into an instance of multiple negation. Another example is the following sentence:
(13) for nother sir Bleoberys nother yett sir Palomydes woll not fyght with me on foote (C 244,4–5).
This sentence and all others like it will therefore be treated as instances of double negation, even though the actual number of negatives is more than two: (nother…nother)… not.
Most instances in the Morte Darthur with more than one negative are fairly straightforward cases either of multiple negation or of simple negation but with more than one negative (neither… nor, or sentences with nor such as example (5)).
Nevertheless there are a number of problematical cases, each of which will have to be analysed in detail in order to decide whether or not they are to be included in the corpus and if so, how. One example is the following sentence:
(14) I charge yow to saye to them that I commaunde them vpon payne of theyre hedes neuer to demaunde trybute ne taxe of me ne of my londes (C 131.7–9)
This sentence contains two instances of the negative coordinator ne; the first introduces an elliptical clause which may be expanded as «nor to demand any taxes». The second ne isa different matter, as a modem English paraphrase of the sentence bears out most dearly: «I command them… never to demand any tribute nor to demand any taxes, either of me or ofmy subjects». In this paraphrase the second negative has to be rendered by or as part of the coordinate phrase either…or. If neither…nor had been used, the sentence would have been an example of double negation, viz. of resumptive negation. In other words, never holds only the second ne within its scope, the first ne introducing by means of coordination an elliptical alternative (5).
In the language of the Morte Darthur as well as in many forms of English spoken today multiple negation usually serves a strengthening, rather than emphatic function.
Conclusion
A double negative occurs when two forms of negation are used in the same clause. In some languages (or varieties of a language), negative forms are consistently used throughout the sentence to express a single negation. In other languages, a double negative is used to negate a negation, and therefore, it resolves to a positive. In the former case, triple and quadruple negation can also be seen, which leads to the terms multiple negation or negative concord.
Double negatives are generally not used in written varieties of Standard English. Consider the phrase «I do not want nothing!» the intended meaning would be expressed as «I do not want anything!» in Standard English, according to prescriptive rules. However, if there is very heavy stress on «do not» or a specific plaintive stress on «nothing,» Standard English can utilize the form «I do not want nothing» as a way of emphasizing that the speaker would rather have «something» than «nothing» at all.
Although they are not used in Standard English, double negatives are used in various dialects of English, including Southern American English, African American Vernacular English, and most British regional dialects, most notably the East London (Cockney) and East Anglian dialects. This is similar to negative concord found in other languages. Often double negatives are considered incorrect grammatical usages; however, dialects which utilize double negatives do so consistently and follow a different set of descriptive linguistic rules.
Many linguistic scientists for many years investigate the phenomenon of multiple negation in the different periods of history of English language as well as in the Modern English.
In Old English and Early Middle English, there was a variety and diversity of Old English negative forms and some specific phenomena and rules of Old English negation, but in the course of time the situation has been changed.
To sum up, I would like to say, that the decline of multiple negation is a process in the history of English that resulted in diminution of using negation constructions in Modern English, especially in written. Nevertheless, it have not disappeared at all, and continues to exist in non-standard spoken English in many fields of life.
References
1. Baker, C.L. 1970. Double Negatives. Linguistic Inquiry 1/2:169–186
2. Barber, Charles. 1993. The English Language. A Historical Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. Baugh, John. 1983. Black Street Speech. Austin: University of Texas Press.
4. Horn Laurence, R. 1978. Some Aspects of Negation. Universals of Human Language, vol.IV. eds. Joseph H. Greenberg, et al., 127–210. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
5. Horn, Laurence R. 1991. Duplex negation affirmat… The Economy of Double Negation. CLS 27:80–106.
6. Iyeiri, Yoko. 2001. Multiple Negation in Early Modern English: Bulletin des Anglicistes Medievistes. L’Association de Medievistes Anglicistes de l’Enseignement Superier. Paris. 47:69–86
7. Jacobsson, B. 1970. English Pronouns and Feature Analysis. Moderna språk
8. Jespersen, Otto. 1917. Negation in English and Other Languages. De Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Histprisk-Filologiske Meddelelser I, 5. Copenhagen. Reprinted in 1962 in Selected Writing of Otto Jespersen. London: Allen and Unwin.
9. Jespersen, Otto. 1940. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, Part V: Syntax, Fourth Volume. Copenhahen: Ejnar Munksgaard.
10. Klima, Eward S. 1964: «Negation in English.» The Structure of Language. Ed. J.A. Fodor and J.J. Katz. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 264–323.
11. Labov, William. 1972a. Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
12. Labov, William. 1972b. Negative Attrection and Negative Concord in English Grammar. Language 48/4: 773–818.
13. Lowth, Robert. 1762. A short introduction of the English language. London: A. Millar, R. and J. Dodsley
14. Malory, Sir Thomas. Le Morte d'Arthur, printed by William Caxton, 1485. Ed. Needham, Paul (1976). London.
15. McCawley J.D. 1973 – Grammar and meaning: Papers on syntactic and semantic topics. – Tokyo: Taishukan, 1973.
16. Payne, John. 1985. Negation. Language Typology and Syntactic Description. Vol. 1. Clause Structure, ed. Timothy Shopen, 197–242. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
17. Quirk, Radolf, Greenbaum, Sidney, Leech, Geoffrey, and Svartvik, Jan. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of English. London & New York: Longman.
18. Rissanen, Matti. 1999. Syntax. The Cambridge History of the English Language, vol. 3: 1476–1776, ed. Robert Lass, 187–331. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
19. Seright, Orin Dale. 1966. Double Negation in Standart Modern English. American Speech 41: 123–126.
20. Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid, Gunnel Tottie, and Wim van der Wurff, eds. 1999: Negation in the History of English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
21. Tottie, Gunnel 1991: Negation in English Speech and Writing: A Study in Variation. San Diego: Academic Press.
22. Traugott, Elithabeth Closs. 1992. Syntax, The Cambridge History of the English Language, vol.I, The Beginnings to 1066, ed. Richard M. Hogg, 168–289. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
23. Trudgill, Peter. 1990. The Dialects of England. Oxford: Blackwell.
24. Wouden, Ton van der 1997: Negative Contexts. London: Routledge.