All words in any language are divided into large groups which are called parts of speech. The principles on which this classification is based are three in number:
1.meaning;
2.form;
3. function.
By meaning we understand the meaning common to all the words of the given class, thus the meaning of nouns denote things, objects. The meaning of the verb is that of process, action.
By form we understand morphological characteristics of a word, thus a noun is characterized by the category of number, a verb by the category of tense, mood. Besides every part of speech may have some morphological indicators. For ex. Suffixes – ment,-dom,-ship,-ism,-ist, are typical of nouns. (-чик,-щик, -тель). –able, -ful.
By function we understand syntactical properties of a word. Nouns function as subjects and objects, verbs usually are predicates, a verb combines with a following noun (he writes letters) and with the following adverb (to write quickly). Adverbs may combine with verbs
7. typology of the category of gender.
The category of gender is basic in nouns. This category differs in English and Russian. In Russian it is expressed morphologically, there are 3 genders feminine, masculine and neuter. They correspond to pronounce он она оно. These pronouns may replace the noun. On the whole the category of gender is deprived of any logics. One and the same noun in different languages may belong to different genders. Вода is feminine in Russian, in german Wasser is neuter gender. Девочка feminine, das Madchen –neuter. Words denoting the same things belong to different genders. Дуб сосна, тюльпан – роза, nouns denoting persons are referred either to feminine or masculine gender depending upon the sex of the person. in both languages nouns denoting male beings belong to masculine gender, nouns denoting female beings are of feminine gender. Brother sister son daughter. In all this cases the category of gender is expressed lexically. It is the most ancient way to express the category of gender. Some nouns have the same root in masculine and feminine gender. Gender in this cases is expressed with the help of endings (flexions). Студент-студентка. The same examples we may find in English though they do not occur often. Waiter-waitress, conductor-conductress, actor-actress. Nouns denoting occupation or profession may be referred to men and women and they may be of feminine and masculine gender depending on the situation. Doctor Ivanova, Pr.Braun. in both languages there are words which may denote either male or female beings, человек, child, baby, ребенок, дитя. In both languages we have words denoting domestic animals of both sexes like –бык-корова, овца-баран, курица-петух. Ship-ram, cow-cox. But in oral practice only one word is usually used to denote animals. In English the category of gender may be expressed with the help of formal words, or special indicators like she-goat, woman-doctor, a boy-girl-friend.
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8. Typology of the category of number
The category of number is even more universal than the category of gender because from the type in memorial men,people have always distinguished between one thing and more than one. In the majority of languages nouns are treated, looked upon as singular plural or collective. Some ancient indo-european languages sanscript, greek and Russian apart from singular and plural had also dual number indicating two – this was used to denote things coming in pairs like eyes, hands, feet, ears. In some American Indian languages the grammatical distinction between singular and plural does not exist at all. The ways of forming plural vary in different languages. Many languages use reduplication to express plurality. The use of the plural form where it exists doesn’t follow any logical system. As rule tatar, finish and congarian use singular forms instead of plural after numerals. A sentences I see five boy – is natural for these languages. Russian has the genitive singular of the noun after numerals 2 3 4. but after four the genitive plural is used. The category of number has undergone a very complex development. And some linguists consider that this category was connected with parts of the human body. In some African languages numbers are expressed by touching the fingers in a special way the wrist, elbow, neck and so on. In some modern European languages the decimal system (system of numbers) is based on usage of the fingers of two hands. And it leads to the conclusion that counting was originally demonstrative and the system of numerals was connected with parts of the human body. In English and Russian the category of number is expressed with the help of flexions and suffixes, in English flexion –s,es, sometime inner flexions are used. –tooth-teeth. In Russian such flexions as ы а и я.
2.stress is used to express the category of number in Russian which may change nouns from singular to plural like дом;а. д;ома. Words which have no suffixes in singular may receive the in plural like сын сыновья, чудо чудеса, and in English they are few child-children, ox – oxen. Besides borrowings in English have original forms of plurality phenomena-phenomenon. Changing of consonants may take place to express plurality. Ухо-уши, друг-друзья, сук-сучья, knife-wife-wives. Supplitive forms may be used in both languages to express the category of number человек-люди, ребенок-дети,men-people. In both languages there are nouns which are used either in plural or in singular:1.abstract nouns, (courage,fight)2.collective nouns (police,poetry)3. Nouns denoting materials, products and minerals.(milk,sugar,water). 4. Some nouns are used only in plural in both languages like ножницы, очки,spectacles. Some nouns are used only in singular in English – news, advice, information,knowledge,permission. But in Russian they have two forms –новость-новости, совет-советы. And some nouns are always used in plural in Russian – часы, деньги,духи, дрожжи, сани, but In English they may have either two forms sledge-sledges, or only singular like money.