HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER IN ENGLISH
SAINT-PETERSBURG 2013
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………..
Part I. SCIENTIFIC WRITING STYLE………………………………….
1. COMMON FEATURES OF SCIENTIFIC WRITING……………………
2. RHETORICAL STRATEGIES IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING…………………
Part II. FORMAL STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH PAPER………………
1. OUTLINE……………………………………………….
2. TITLE…………………………………………
3. ABSTRACT……………………………………………………..
4. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………
5. THESIS STATEMENT…………………………………..
6. MATERIALS AND METHODS……………………………………………..
7. MAIN BODY ……………………………………….
8. RESULTS………………………………………
9. FIGURES AND TABLES……………………………………………
10. DISCUSSION…………………………………..
11. CONCLUSION……………………………
12. REFERENCES………………………………..
Part III. LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF A PAPER……………………………
1. COHERENCE……………………………………………….
2. COHESION………………………………………………………..
3. METHODS OF WRITING………………………………..
3.1. INFERENCE…………….
3.2. FACT AND OPINION………………..
3.3. CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER…………..
3.4. GENERALIZATION AND SPECIFICS……………
3.5. CLASSIFICATION…………………..
3.6. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST…………….
3.7. CAUSE AND EFFECT……………………………………
4. LIST OF SENTENCE CONNECTORS……………………………………………………
Part IV. REFERENCE MATERIALS…………………………………………
1. GRAMMAR SECTION……………………..
1.1. THE USE OF ARTICLES AND NOUN PHRASES…………………………………………………….
1.2. THE USE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS……………………………………………………
1.3. COMMON WRITING ERRORS ……………………………………………
2. VOCABULARY SECTION…………………….
2.1. USEFUL EXPRESSIONS FOR SCIENTIFIC WRITING…………………………….
3. KEY CONCEPTS…………………..
4. APPENDIX. LATIN WORDS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN ACADEMIC WRITING………………
BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………
NOTES…………………………………………………..
INTRODUCTION
There are four language skills: reading, writing, speaking and listening. Writing and speaking have much in common. Both of them are productive skills. That means they involve producing language rather than receiving it. Before writing and speaking we need to brainstorm our ideas and to have someone (an addressee or recipient) to communicate with and something (a message) to communicate.
However, there are some differences between these two language skills. If we consider the basic features of written and spoken texts, we can see that written texts demand more accuracy, more complex grammar, more time for logical sequencing and knowledge of punctuation rules whereas spoken texts demand less accuracy and simpler grammar (the sentences can remain unfinished due to hesitation and pauses that a speaker makes), less time for logical sequencing because of speeding up/slowing down or rephrasing, as well as use of stress, intonation and body language instead of punctuation. In spoken forms of communication there is always an instant feedback in contrast to written forms.
Thus, the process of writing is an active thinking process which demands a high degree of concentration, accuracy, analytical skills and intellectual involvement.
Before writing we need to know the purpose of writing to choose the relevant content or subject matter and methods of its organization.
In this writing practice manual you will learn general writing strategies, features of academic writing style, ways of formal structuring a paper as well as basic means of logical structuring that are common in English academic writing. Throughout the manual you will also study the samples and do exercises aimed at developing your writing skills. There is reference material (See Part IV) at the end of the book made of Grammar and Vocabulary sections that will help you in editing and proofreading your paper and expanding your vocabulary. In Key Concepts section you can find definitions to all the terms and concepts which you come across and which are highlighted in bold in the text.
The skills developed will be helpful for university students interested in learning EAP (English for Academic Purposes), research writing techniques and requirements as well as for all ESL (English as a Second Language) students interested in English academic writing.
Part I. ACADEMIC WRITING STYLE
Writing suggests using writing subskills which are related either to appropriacy or to accuracy.
The first type of writing subskills related to appropriacy includes using appropriate style and register, organizing ideas in a helpful way, using the features typical of the text type we are writing, joining our words and sentences clearly and using appropriate functions to express our meaning.
The second type of subskills related to accuracy involves spelling correctly, punctuating correctly, using correct layouts, choosing the right vocabulary and grammar, joining sentences and paragraphs correctly, etc.
Let us consider the first type of writing subskills related to appropriacy. Before writing any text we should think of its content or purpose as well as an addressee (the person we are writing to) and the context (the background situation). In other words, we should choose the level of formality that suits a situation. This is called appropriacy.
Thus, to make our language and its use appropriate (suitable) to the context we need to know the people and the context where it is used. There are different levels of formality: formal language (more socially distant) which is used in official and important situations amongst people who do not know each other; informal language (more socially casual) which is used in relaxed situations among people who know each other well or treat each other in a relaxed way; neutral language which is used when we want to show neither great respect not too much casualness towards the person we are appealing to. Therefore some language forms, structures and meanings are appropriate to one situation and are inappropriate (unsuitable) to another. Language that reflects the situation is called register. Compare if you say “hi” (informal register) or “a very good morning to you” (formal register).
Every time we write we do it for some reason. The reason why we write a text is called a function. In order to express appropriate meaning we need to understand the function of what we are writing (e.g. narrating, requesting, thanking, summarizing, complaining, etc).
Each text has its specific addressee, context, function and characteristics which includes a set of features (typical traits of the text), e.g. single words only, short sentences or longer sentences, different degrees of formality, layouts (the way we organize our text) and ways of ordering/structuring the text. Compare the way in which a postcard is written to an e-mail, or a research paper to a newspaper article. These are the examples of different written text types. The difference between characteristics of text types is in the style which the author uses in his writing. A characteristic way of conveying information is called a style. There are many styles, e.g. humorous, journalistic, casual, business-like, academic, etc.