Problems with the relative pronouns which and that, and whether to use commas with them, are a common error we see in academic writing. Let us have a look at the following example and understand how these two words are used:
- Different types of morphemes which can be called “distributional morpheme types” have been discriminated.[M. Blokh 2000]
The underlined portion of this example is the relative clause which is essential to the meaning of the sentence because if it were omitted the sentence would read “Different types of morphemes have been discriminated”. This does not make sense, because only distributional types of morphemes have been discriminated. Thus the relative clause defines which types of morphemes the sentence refers to: it is a defining relative clause.
A note on the use of defining relative clauses:
Ø Practice differs in different parts of the English-speaking world in terms of the relative pronoun that can begin a defining clause. UK practice (which is also followed in Australia, New Zealand, etc.) allows either “ which” or “that”. US practice permits only “ that” in this clause type.
Ø Defining clauses have no commas separating them from the rest of the sentence. [M. Cargill, P. O’Connor, p.116]
Let us consider another example:
- The notion is analysed by morphology, which is grammatical teaching of the word.[M. Blokh 2000]
In this example, the relative clause is not essential to the basic meaning of the sentence. If it were omitted, the sentence would read “The notion is analysed by morphology” and this makes sense. The relative clause is adding extra, non-essential information and is thus a non-defining relative clause. Another way to work out if a relative clause is non-defining is to try inserting the phrase “by the way” after the “ which”. If this addition sounds acceptable, the clause is non-defining.
A note on the use of non-defining relative clauses:
Ø They are separated from the rest of their sentence by commas: two commas if they occur in the middle of the sentence as in our example, or one comma if they come at the end of a sentence.
Ø They can only begin with “ which”.
Ø The same distinction holds when the which + verb is omitted, forming a phrase:
- Different types of morphemes called “distributional morpheme types” have been discriminated. [M. Blokh 2000]
- The notion is analysed by morphology, grammatical teaching of the word.[M. Blokh 2000]
COMMON WRITING ERRORS
Scientific writing follows its own style conventions. According to these conventions, some ways of writing are not useful when writing scientifically. We have taken a list of tips and common errors from “Style Points on Scientific Writing”[https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu/pdf/Style_Points_for_Scientific_Writing.pdf].
Ø Grammar and spelling
Avoid obvious grammatical errors. Clear written communication requires proper sentence structure and use of words. Make sure that your sentences are complete, that they make sense when you proofread, and that you have verb/subject agreement.
Ø Verb tense
Use of the wrong verb tense, at best, is irritating to read and reflects poorly on the student’s writing skills. At worst, the reader can be confused as to what facts are already known and what was newly discovered in the actual study that is the subject of the paper. Keep verbs parallel.
Use present tense for generalizations and stable conditions. For example, use present tense to describe a theory that is currently held:
- Theory REFERS to…[https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu]
Use present tense to describe generally accepted facts.
- We sought to determine if … IS related to …[https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu]
- This finding agrees with the example which IS …[https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu]
Use past tense for specific citations and when referring to specific results. Also use past tense to describe events that have happened. Such events include procedures that you have conducted and results that you observed.
- We found that … WAS similar to …[https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu]
Reference to results of a specific study should also be in past tense.
- Abercrombie and Fitch REPORTED that Sudley (1969) SHOWED [https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu]
Never report descriptions of behavior in the future or subjunctive mood;
In general (there are always exceptions), these are the verb tenses typically used in the following sections of a research paper:
· Abstract: past tense
· Introduction: present tense
· Methods, Results: past tense
· Discussion: often alternates between past tense (when discussing results of current study (“we found”) and present tense (“our results are consistent with” or “the theory predicts that”).
Ø Inaccurate word or phrase
Make sure that you understand the meaning of words that you use. The following words are commonly misused in scientific writing:
1) Significant. Use in a statistical context only. The opposite of significant is “nonsignificant” (not “insignificant”). Significance refers to differences, not results.
· Correct: The differences were nonsignificant. [ https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu ]
· Incorrect: The differences were insignificant. [ https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu ]
2) Affect vs. Effect. Affect is a verb meaning “to influence”, Effect is a noun meaning “a result”. One thing affects something else, but something causes an effect. Also be careful, affect is also a noun meaning “emotion”.
· Correct: Our study showed a large effect. [ https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu ]
· Incorrect: Our study showed a large affect. [ https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu ]
3) Less vs. Fewer.
Less: When referring to collective noun (e.g., “less time”)
Fewer: When referring to multiple items (e.g., “fewer pronouns”)
4) Which vs. That. As a general rule, if changing “which” to “that” does not alter the meaning, then “that” is probably correct.
5) Former vs. Latter. Avoid using these words to refer back. Doing so does not save many words, and too often it makes the reader backtrack to determine which was which.
6) Because vs. Since. “Because” is often clearer than “since”.
8) Proves. In general we are cautious with our results. Since the word “prove” indicates that something has been shown to occur beyond a shadow of a doubt, avoid using it. Since the scientific process relies on replication of results, results from a single study only “suggest” or “indicate”, they never “prove”.
9) Data. The word “data” is plural. However, since investigators usually refer to sets of data, there is a tendency to use the word as though it was singular (“the data suggests…”). As awkward as it may seem to you, the proper phrases are: “the data were affected...,” and “the data suggest...”.
Ø Correct noun use.
Nouns are regularly misused as adjectives. This habit leads to the ugly practice of piling up nouns in front of the noun they modify.
Ø Subjectivity, needless words and use of superlatives
We use superlatives and subjective statements in order to emphasize a point. We simply do not use such writing styles in science. Objectivity is absolutely essential.
Subjectivity refers to feelings, opinions, etc. For example, in your discussion you might write, “We felt that...”. Another researcher is unlikely to risk time and resources on the basis of your “feeling”.
Similarly, we do not write that we believe something. In particular, we do not “expect” a particular set of results, or “wire” a hypothesis so that it appears that we correctly predicted the results. That sort of practice is another example of lack of objectivity.
Lean writing is particularly important in scientific writing, because of its emphasis on conveying quantitative information efficiently.
Superlatives include adjectives such as “huge”, “incredible”, “wonderful”, “exciting”, etc. Your definition of “incredible” might be different from that of someone else. It is much better to use an objective expression, such as “it is clear (possible, likely, true, surprising, interesting, significant, notable, etc)” [https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu/pdf/Style_Points_for_Scientific_Writing.pdf].
Use superlatives sparingly or not at all. If a word expresses an absolute quality orcondition, the comparative has no place. You can almost always delete “very”, “quite”, “rather”, “somewhat”, and similar words.
Avoid needless evasive wording. The construction “was dependent upon” has the same meaning as “depended on”.
Do not use clichés (e.g., “plays a role”). Below we list examples of these and other words that are useless or incorrect in scientific writing, with suggested alternatives [https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu/pdf/Style_Points_for_Scientific_Writing.pdf]:
| Do not use | Better |
| fact | evidence |
| prove | support |
| plays an important role | is important because |
| due to the fact that | because |
| a decreased number of | fewer |
| time period | time |
| longer time period | longer |
| brown in color | brown |
| round in shape | round |
| has been shown to be | is |
| it is possible that | may |
| demonstrate | show |
| exhibit | show |
| utilize | use |
| in other words | thus/hence/therefore |
| adverbs | eliminate |
| in this experiment/study | eliminate |
| it is interesting to note that | eliminate |
| it would thus appear that | eliminate |
| it may seem reasonable to suppose that | eliminate |
| Interestingly | eliminate |
Ø Sentence and paragraph construction
Avoid long sentences. Comprehension falls rapidly as sentences exceed about 16 words. Try to avoid writing more than one thought per sentence.
Avoid overlong paragraphs. If you have fewer than two to three paragraphs per page, look for natural breaks. If none exist, you are probably alternating between themes or ideas, and may need to reorganize.
Ø Irrelevant (Anectodal) information
Sometimes you may feel the need to justify a statement or procedure by stating “ we used … to produce a graph of …”. Such information is anecdotal and is considered to be superfluous. In some cases omission of anecdotal information is unfortunate. Papers in the older literature tend to be a lot more exciting and often more informative for those not “in the know”, because the researcher could report how a conclusion was reached, including the reasoning and various sidetracks that led him/her to conclusions. The writer could actually tell the story of the investigation process. Modern papers omit such information because the volume of literature is so great; most of us doing a search do not have time to wade through more material than we need. Publication costs are too high to permit printing of superfluous information.
A research paper summarizes a study. It does not identify who did what. Reference to instructors, fellow students, teams, partners, etc. are not appropriate, nor is it appropriate to refer to “the lab”.
Ø Unnecessary background
If you state facts or describe mechanisms, do so in order to make a point or to help interpret results, and do refer to the present study. If you find yourself writing everything you know about the subject, you are wasting your time (and that of your reader). Stick to the appropriate point, and include a reference to your source of background information if you feel that it is important.
Ø Including material that is inappropriate for the readership
It is unnecessary to tell fellow researchers that your study is pertinent to the field of biochemistry. Your readers can figure out to what field(s) your work applies. You need not define terms that are well known to the intended readership.
Ø Proof
It is highly doubtful that any single experiment can be so well controlled that its conclusions can be regarded as proof. In fact, for any result to be accepted it must be confirmed independently. In fact, we can never know if a model as we describe it presents an accurate picture of any natural process. We can never look at the original blueprint to check our conclusions. Thus, your data may strongly support a position, or they may allow you to reject a hypothesis, but they are not likely to provide anything close to proof.
Ø Oversimplification
If you intend to describe the methodology, then write a complete description. If you intend only to summarize the procedures then you might seek a phrase that sums up what was done without oversimplifying.
Ø Superficiality
The purpose of a discussion is to interpret the results, not to simply state them in a different way. In most cases a superficial discussion ignores mechanisms or fails to explain them completely. It should be clear to the reader why a specific result came to pass. The statement, “The result agreed with the known theoretical value”, tells us nothing about the mechanism(s) behind the result [https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu/pdf/Style_Points_for_Scientific_Writing.pdf]
Explanations may not be easy and your explanation may not be correct, but you will get most or all of the available credit for posing a reasonable explanation, even if it is not quite right.
Ø Anthropomorphism
Sometimes you cannot easily find the right wording in order to explain a cause and effect relationship, or you may not understand the concept well enough in order to write an explanation. Anthropomorphism is a type of oversimplification that helps the writer avoid a real explanation of a mechanism.
Ø Common mistakes in reporting results
Converted data are data that have been analyzed, usually summarized, and presented in such a way that only the information pertinent to the objectives of the study is presented. Raw data refers to results of individual replicate trials, individual observations, chart records, and other information that comes directly from the laboratory.
Once you have presented converted data, do not present the same data in a different way. For example, if the data are plotted, then do not include a table of data as well. Present a figure (such as a graph) if appropriate. If the data are better represented by a table, then use a table. The caption with any figure or table should include all pertinent information. One should not have to go into the body of the paper to find out the results of statistical tests on the data, or the rationale behind a curve fit.
Raw data are not usually included in your results. Raw data include lists of observations, measurements taken in order to obtain a final result (e.g., absorbance, relative mobility, tick marks on a microscope reticule) [https://www.writingcenter.uconn.edu/pdf/Style_Points_for_Scientific_Writing.pdf]
Use an appropriate number of decimal places (if you need decimal places at all) to report means and other measured or calculated values. The number of decimal places and/or significant figures must reflect the degree of precision of the original measurement. See our analytical resources for information on uncertain quantities and significant figures. Since the number of significant figures used reflects the level of precision of the measurement or calculation, there is never any need to qualify a measurement or calculation as “about” or “approximate”.
Graphs and other pictures that represent data are called figures, and are numbered consecutively. Tables are distinguished from figures, and are numbered consecutively as well. Graphs are analytical tools. Chart records are raw data (which may be presented in results as an example, if appropriate).
Do not draw conclusions in the results section. Reserve data interpretation for the discussion.
Ø The significance of “significance”
Lack of a significant difference does not mean that the result itself is insignificant. Significance in this study refers to the importance of the result.
There is a tendency among students to reject a study as inconclusive just because no statistically significant differences were found. Such rejection suggests a misunderstanding of the scientific method itself. You can conclude something from even the most poorly designed experiments. In fact, most well-designed experiments result in support for the null hypothesis. Be prepared to interpret whatever you find, regardless of what you think you should find. The purpose of experimental science is to discover the truth - not to make the data conform to one's expectations.
Ø Proofread!
Incomplete sentences, redundant phrases, obvious misspellings, and other symptoms of a hurriedly-written paper can cost you. Start your work early enough so that you can proofread it. Check spelling of scientific names, names of people, names of compounds, etc. Spelling and grammatical errors can be embarrassing. Since many very different terms have similar names, a spelling error can result in a completely incorrect statement.
When you print off your paper, please make sure that tables are not split over more than one page, that headings are not “orphaned”, pages submitted out of sequence, etc. Remember, someone has to read this paper!
VOCABULARY SECTION
In this Vocabulary section you will be given some hints on useful words and phrases that you need to know when writing a research paper.