[1] RAILWAYS
The railroad is a form of land transportation that is found in almost every country in the world. Railroads serve many thousands of communities, from big cities in highly developed nations to tiny villages in remote areas. Railroads carry travelers to and from neighboring communities or on trips across whole continents. They carry raw materials and farm products to manufacturing and processing plants, and they carry the finished products from those plants to warehouses and stores. Railroads were designed to move large numbers of passengers or large amounts of freight over long distances. The railroad is the most efficient method of land transportation because it requires the least amount of fuel and human labor and is the least damaging to the environment. Railroads carry about 40 percent of the total volume of freight transportation in the United States. The world has a total of more than 738,000 miles (1,187,000 kilometers) of railroad line. Almost all the railroad systems carry both freight and passengers. A railroad is much like a manufacturing business whose sole product is transportation service. To produce that product it requires tracks, cars, locomotives, repair shops, communication systems, and skilled workers.
[2] PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION IN THE USA
In urban areas of the United States, movements of people between home and work account for about 40 percent of the total number of passenger journeys. Recreational trips* account for about 15 percent of all trips. Automobile riding, for example, is not only a means of reaching a destination but is a popular form of outdoor recreation**. Recreational boating also is popular. Cruise ships have made up the major proportion of ocean-going passenger vessels since jet aircraft became the favored mode of transoceanic travel. The automobile dominates intercity passenger transportation in the United States. It accounts for more than 80 percent of the total passenger miles. No other mode of transportation approaches the flexibility and convenience of the automobile, which provides door-to-door service independent of schedules.
The railroad is no longer a major means of intercity passenger transportation in the United States, though railroad passenger service prospers in much of the rest of the world. As recently as the early 1940s there were more than 20,000 daily intercity passenger trains in the United States. By the early 1970s there were only about 200. Whereas railroads accounted for almost 70 percent of the total passenger-miles by public carrier in 1930, by 1970 they accounted for less than one percent. In 1971 the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, a federal agency that is also known as Amtrak, took over most of the intercity railroad passenger service. Most Amtrak trains operate in the Northeast corridor between Boston, Mass.; New York City; Philadelphia, Pa.; Baltimore, Md.; and Washington, D.C. A large proportion of the New York-Washington service is by high-speed electric trains called Metroliners. There is commuter railroad passenger service in the suburban areas of such large cities as New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, and San Francisco. Electric interurban railroads and street railways in cities have almost disappeared.
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Intercity buses in the United States serve many more communities*** than do railroads. Using modern expressways, they provide swift service between major cities, though many communities not on expressways now have much less bus service than they formerly had. Air carriers dominate public intercity passenger transportation in the United States. The growth of air passenger traffic has been rapid, increasing from only 14 percent of the total in 1950 to more than 85 percent in the 1980s. Passenger transportation by water carriers in the United States is insignificant except for some ferry services.
Notes: *recreational trip – путешествие (поездка на отдых или экскурсию)
**outdoor recreation – отдых на открытом воздухе
***community – населённый пункт
To be read after Lesson 3
[3] THE BATTLE OF THE GAUGES
Part 1
In the early days, each railroad built its track at whatever gauge it pleased and then built its engines and cars to fit that gauge. The tracks at the Killingworth Colliery, for which George Stephenson built his first locomotive the Blocher, happened to be 4 feet 8 inches (1.42 meters) between rails, so Stephenson built his locomotive for this gauge. When he designed the Stockton and Darlington he made the locomotive the same width but added another half inch (1.3 centimeters) to the width of track. This odd measurement of 4 feet 81/2 inches (1.44 meters) in time came to be known as standard gauge. Other tracks in England ranged between 2 and 7 feet (0.6 and 2.1 meters). The famous English engineer Brunel considered that the (чем) broader the gauge, the (тем) easily would the trains run. Following his advice the Great Western Company had constructed the railway network with a gauge of 7 feet. That is why for many years there were 2 gauges in England: the 7 feet suggested by Brunel and 4 feet 8½ inches, offered by Stephenson. It was inconvenient because where there was a break of gauges, delay was caused and time was wasted. Angry people wrote to the newspapers and demanded to change the broad gauge. “The Battle of the Gauges” lasted more than 30 years. Only in 1892 in the House of Commons*the broad gauge was described as a “national evil”, and it was decided to convert all the railways to the standard gauge.
Part 2
In the United States the early railroad tracks ranged from 3 to 6 feet (0.9 to 1.8 meters) in width. This variance became unacceptable with the demand for connecting lines and through service. Freight soon began to move longer distances and over the lines of more than one railroad. The differences in gauges forced the costly nuisance of unloading and reloading cars. Most of the lines in the area between New York City and Chicago were of nearly the same gauge—between 4 feet 8 inches and 4 feet 10 inches (1.47 meters). Thus, in the 1860s, arrangements were made to use cars specially equipped with broad-tread wheels that could be used on any of these widths. About the same time, the movement toward standardization of the 4 feet 81/2 inch, or Stephenson, gauge received great encouragement when the United States Congress adopted it for the new Pacific railroad. By the mid-1880s there was virtually a double standard of gauge in the United States. In the North and West the Stephenson gauge prevailed, while most of the South used a gauge of 5 feet (1.52 meters). Starting in 1886, the Southern lines narrowed their tracks to the now standard gauge of 4 feet 81/2 inches. This uniformity soon ensured an uninterrupted flow of commerce over the entire nation. Standard gauge is also used in Canada, Mexico, and Cuba, which was once linked with railroadson the mainland by freight-car ferry. No other continent has a comparable standardization, however.
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Note: *the House of Commons – Палата Общин
[4] DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN RAILROADS
Between 1850 and 1871 the United States government made grants to railroads to assist the extension of lines in the West and South, often ahead of settlement. About 8 percent of the country’s railroad mileage was built with the aid of these land grants. The grants were not outright gifts; in return, the railroads were required to haul government traffic at reduced rates. When Congress terminated this arrangement in 1946, it was estimated that the railroads had repaid the government about ten times the original value of the land grants.
By 1870, when the railroad movement in the United States was 40 years old, there were 53,000 miles (85,000 kilometers) of main lines, not including secondary tracks, sidings, passingtracks, or yards. Between 1870 and 1880 another 40,000 miles (64,000 kilometers) were added. The decade from 1880 to 1890 saw the most rapid expansion of American rail lines, with 70,000 miles (113,000 kilometers) added—an average of 19 miles (31 kilometers) of new railroad completed each day. Growth continued, with another 30,000 miles (48,000 kilometers) added in the 1890s and another 47,000 miles (76,000 kilometers) in the next decade. By 1910 the network was largely complete and there was little further extension. In 1916 total railroad-line mileage in the United States reached its highest point at 254,000 miles (409,000 kilometers).
After 1920, with the rapid expansion of paved roads, much traffic was taken from the railroads by automobiles, buses, and trucks, though the overall demand for railroad service remained high. As a result, the railroad network began to shrink as lines that could no longer pay their way were abandoned. By the end of the 1980s, railroad-line miles in the United States had dropped to about 150,000 miles (241,000 kilometers). Some of the lines had been built to serve mines, forests, or other nonrenewable natural resources and were abandoned when the resources were exhausted. Other lines had been built to serve an anticipated need that never materialized. Still other lines disappeared because the industries they had been built to serve entered a period of decline or relocated to other parts of the country. By the late 1980s, American railroads had become primarily high-volume freight carriers operating on long-distance, main-line corridors. Intercity passenger traffic had largely been taken over by automobiles, buses, and airlines. Much freight, especially on the shorter distance hauls, was being carried by trucks. Yet the total railroad freight volume, as measured in ton-miles (a ton-mile is a unit of measurement corresponding to one ton of freight carried one mile) set a new all-time record in 1990—78 percent more than in 1960.
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[5] SLEEPING CARS IN THE USA
The first passenger cars in the USA were high in proportion to their length, and were not fitted for movement upon rails. Their characteristics have gradually changed, so as to make them longer, lower, safer, more comfortable and convenient. One of the most important railroad inventions in the USA was a sleeping car. The earliest trains had no sleeping cars. There was really no need for them, because early railroads were short; the longest journeys lasted only a few hours, and nearly all trains went in the daytime. As a number of railroads increased, it became possible to make longer and longer journeys and night travel became common. Long journeys by night were very tiresome and uncomfortable because it was almost impossible for passengers to sleep in the car seats. Steamboats and sailing vessels had good sleeping rooms, and even canal boats used for passenger transportation had bunks in which travelers could rest at night. It can easily be seen that there was a real need for sleeping cars on the railroads, and especially upon the railroads of the USA, where the distance which one might travel was so large. The earliest sleeping cars had a row of double bunks on each side. Although these cars were more comfortable for night travel than the ordinary coach, they had one large defect. They could not be used for day travel. What was needed was a car in which the seats used during the day could be converted into beds at night.
George M. Pullman of Chicago invented the modern sleeping car. He built his first one in 1859. This car was much simplerin design than the sleeping cars of today but it was so much more suitable for long-distance travel than any other kind of car in use at that time. Encouraged by the success of his first car, Mr. Pullman built а much larger sleeping car a few years later, a car which was a great improvementover his first coach. This car was named the Pioneer. George Pullman received many orders for sleeping cars. In 1879 he bought the big site of land near Chicago. On this place the city of Pullman was constructed, and there the Pullman-Standard Car Manufacturing Company still has its great manufacturing plant, which is capable of producing many hundreds of all kinds of cars a year. Practically all of the sleeping cars on the USA's railroads are owned and operated by the Pullman Company.