Almost everything we use in modern life is made by engineers. For example, if a manufacturer wants a faster car, a smaller personal stereo, or a better pen, they ask a design engineer to find a practical solution.
Engineering is both theoretical and practical.
Engineers use theory (ideas about engineering) to produce practical answers. The design solution must be a reasonable price, safe, and reliable. A new idea that is expensive, dangerous, or doesn’t always work is not a good solution.
Engineers use a method.
Generally, engineers solve problems in a methodical way. Engineers:
1 define the problem,
2 design a solution,
3 test the solution,
4 evaluate the solution.
If the solution isn’t right, the process is repeated. When a good solution is found, next step is to:
5 communicate the solution.
Anyone can use engineering ideas.
This method of problem-solving is useful in everyday life. For example, you can use the five steps next time you prepare for a test.
1 Define the problem: I want to pass my test next week.
2 Design a solution: I will study for three hours a day.
3 Test the solution: Study for three hours a day and take the test.
4 Evaluate the solution: Have I passed the test with a good mark?
Yes = a good solution.
No = a bad solution, so think of a better one.
5 Communicate the solution: Tell your friends about your test-passing technique.
Text 2
Smart Materials
Smart – or shape memory – materials are an invention that has changed the word of engineering. There are two types: metal alloys and plastic polymers. The metal alloys were made first and they are usually an expensive mixture of titanium and nickel.
Shape memory materials are called ‘smart’ because they react to changes in their environment, for example:
· plastics that return to their original shape when the temperature changes. One use is in surgery where plastics threads ‘remember’ the shape of a knot, react to the patient’s body temperature and make themselves into stitches.
· metal alloys that have a ‘memory’ and can return to their original shape. They are used in medical implants that are compressed so they can be put inside the patient’s body through a small cut. The implant then expands back to its original shape. More everyday uses are for flexible spectacle frames and teeth braces.
· solids that darken in sunlight, like the lenses in some sunglasses.
· liquid crystals that change shape and colour. These have been used in climbing ropes that change colour if there is too much strain and weight on them.
The future of these materials and their possible uses is limited only by human imagination. One clever idea is that if cars were made of smart metal, a minor accident could be repaired by leaving the car in the sun!
Text 1
GREAT BRITAIN
Country in brief
Great Britain is an island lying off the north-western coastline of Europe. The English Channel separates it from the mainland in the south. Great Britain is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the north-west, north and south-west. The Strait of Dover, 29 km wide, divides it from France. Great Britain is separated from Belgium and Holland by the North Sea, and in the west Great Britain is separated from Ireland by the Irish Sea and the North Channel. The North Sea and the English Channel are often called the «Narrow Seas». They are not deep but frequently are rough and difficult to navigate during storms. The Channel near Dover links England to Europe (France).
The official name of Great Britain is the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. Great Britain is the name of the major island of the United Kingdom including England, Scotland and Wales. The United Kingdom, or the UK, comprises Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
The UK is often referred to as Great Britain or the British Isles. It is an island state consisting of more than 5,000 large and small islands, the most important being the Isle of Man and the Isle of Wight.
There are plenty of rivers in Great Britain. The main rivers of Great Britain are the Severn and the Thames. The Severn is the longest one while the Thames is the deepest and the most important one.
Due to the influence of the Gulf Stream, a warm ocean current washing Britain's western shores, the UK enjoys warmer winters and cooler summers than other countries at the same latitude. There is much rain and fog in England.
The country is not very rich in mineral resources. Exploration of natural gas and oil has been going on in Britain since the early 1960s. The leading mineral resource of Britain is coal and coal-mining is one of the most important British industries. The major industries include iron and steel; engineering, including motor vehicles and aircraft; textiles and chemicals. Over three-quarters of Britain's land are used for farming; farms produce nearly half of food that Britain needs.
The largest cities of Great Britain are: London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester, Sheffield, Bristol, Leeds and Edinburgh. The capital of the UK is London.
Text 2
GREAT BRITAIN
State system
The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy (or a parliamentary democracy). This means that it has a monarch (a king or a queen) as its Head of State. The monarch reigns with the support of Parliament. The powers of the monarch are not defined precisely. Everything today is done in the queen's name. It is her government, her armed forces, her law courts and so on. She supports all the Ministers, including the Prime Minister. Everything is done, however, on the advice of the elected Government, and the monarch takes no part in decision-making process.
Once the British Empire included a large number of countries all over the world ruled by Britain. The process of decolonization began in 1947 with the independence of India, Pakistan and Ceylon. Now, apart from Hong Kong and a few small islands, there is no longer an Empire. But the British ruling class tried not to lose influence over the former colonies. An association of former members of the British Empire and Britain was founded in 1949. It is called the Commonwealth. It includes many countries (16 sovereign countries) such as Ireland, Birma, Sudan, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and others. The Queen of Great Britain is also the Head of the Commonwealth, and so the Queen of Canada, Australia, New Zealand. The Queen is very rich, the same as other members of the royal family. In addition, the government pays for her expenses as Head of State, for a royal yacht, train and aircraft as well as for the upkeep of several palaces. The Queen's image appears on stamps, notes and coins.
The UK's current monarch and head of state is Queen Elizabeth II who acceded to the throne in 1952 and was crowned in 1953. She has now reigned longer than any other monarch in modern Britain, with Queen Victoria (on the throne for 63 years) coming second. Prince Charles is heir to the throne.
Parliament consists of two chambers known as the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Parliament and the monarch have different roles in the government of the country, and they only meet together on symbolic occasions such as the coronation of a new monarch or the opening of Parliament. In reality, the House of Commons is the only one of the three which has true power. It is here that new bills are introduced and debated. If the majority of the members is in favour of a bill, it goes to the House of Lords to be debated and finally to the monarch to be signed. Only then it becomes law. Although a bill must be supported by all three bodies, the House of Lords has only limited powers, and the monarch has not refused to sign one since the modern political system began over 200 years ago.
Members of the House of Lords (peers) are not elected. About 70 per cent of them are “hereditary peers” because their fathers were peers before them. The other 30 per cent are “life peers”, whose titles are not passed on to their children. They are officially appointed by the Queen, on the advice of the government, for various services to the nation.
The House of Commons plays the major role in law-making. It consists of Members of Parliament (called MPs for short), each of them represents an area in England, Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. MPs are elected either at a general election, or at a by-election following the death or retirement of a MP.
Parliamentary elections must be held every five years, but the Prime Minister can decide on the exact date within those five years. The minimum voting age is 18, and the voting is taken by secret ballot.
The election campaign lasts about three weeks. The election is decided on a simple majority. The candidate with most votes wins. The British parliamentary system depends on political parties. The political parties choose candidates in elections. The party which wins the majority of seats forms the Government and its leader usually becomes Prime Minister. The Prime Minister chooses about 20 MPs from his or her party to become the Cabinet of Ministers. Each minister is responsible for a particular area of the government. The second largest party becomes the official opposition with its own leader and “Shadow Cabinet”. Leader of the opposition is a recognized post in the House of Commons.
The British Parliament works in a large building called the Palace of Westminster (or the Palace or Parliament). This contains offices, committee rooms, restaurants, bars, libraries and even some places of residence. It also contains two larger rooms. One of them is where the House of Lords meets, the other is where the House of Commons meets.
The British parliament is one of the oldest in the world, and foreigners are often puzzled by some of its ancient customs. During debates in the House of Commons, for example, members are not permitted to refer to each other by name, but must use the title “the Honourable Member”.
The Lord Chancellor, who controls debates in the House of Lords, must sit on the “woolsack”, a seat filled with wool that originated in the 14th century when wool was a symbol of Britain's prosperity. The position of the Lord Chancellor will soon be abolished. This is just one of the radical changes that have been imposed on the 700-year-old parliament in recent years, including the creation of a separate Scottish Parliament and Welsh and Northern Irish Assemblies.