Под понятийными понимаются признаки, актуализированные в виде семантических компонентов (сем) в словарных дефинициях (Пименова 2004: 168).
Во многих словарях толкование лексемы hope разное, но все же выделяют общие понятийные признаки.
Так, согласно "Cambridge Dictionaries Online", hope: something good that you want to happen in the future, or a confident feeling about what will happen in the future." желание исполнения чего-либо хорошего или уверенное чувство, что что-нибудь случится в будущем". Young people are growing up in our cities without any hope of finding a job.
"Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English" предлагает 9 признаков, но первые три отражают основные понятийные признаки:
1) a feeling of wanting something to happen or be true and believing that it is possible or likely " предчувствие чего-либо, которое должно случится в будущем и вера в то, что возможно будет". We haven't had any success yet, but welive in hope.
2) something that you hope will happen " надежда на то, что может случиться". My hope is that by next summer I'll have saved enough money to go travelling.
3) a chance of succeeding or of something good happening " возможность того, что случится что-нибудь хорошее". It was rush hour, and there was no hope of getting a seat.
Согласно "Merriam Webster Online Dictionary" лексема hope это:
) desire accompanied by expectation of or belief in fulfillment "желание, сопровождаемое ожиданием или верой в выполнение". Rescuers have not yet abandoned hope that more survivors will be found.
2) someone or something on which hopes are centered " кто-то или что-то, на котором сосредоточены надежды". He had little hope of attending college.
Согласно "Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary", hope это:
1) something that you wish for "то, чего Вы желаете". They have high hopes for their children.
2) a person, a thing or a situation that will help you get what you want " человек, вещь или ситуация, которая поможет Вам получить то, что Вы хотите". The operation was Kelly's only hope of survival.
"Macmillan Dictionary and Thesaurus: Free English Dictionary Online <https://www.google.ru/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=10&ved=0CHkQFjAJ&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.macmillandictionary.com%2F&ei=RyORUd_gF-Po4QSv3IBA&usg=AFQjCNG7hyGejMg7LuheM_z0EA5WT1NQ6w&bvm=bv.46340616,d.bGE>" также предлагает несколько толкований:
1) the <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=the> feeling <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=feeling> or <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=or> belief <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=belief> that <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=that> something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> you <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=you> want <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=want> to <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=to> happen <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=happen> is <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=is> likely <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=likely> to <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=to> happen <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=happen> " чувство, что случится то, что вы хотите". My <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=my> hope <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=hope> is <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=is> that <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=that> one <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=one> day <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=day> she <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=she> will <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=will> forgive <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=forgive> me <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=me>.
2) a chance that something good will happen "возможность того, что случится что-то хорошее". Is there <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=there> any <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=any> hope <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=hope> that <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=that> she <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=she> will <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=will> change <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=change> her <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=her> mind <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=mind>?
) <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=a> chance <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=chance> for <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=for> success <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=success>, or <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=or> <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=a> person <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=person> who <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=who> you <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=you> believe <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=believe> has <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=has> <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=a> chance <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=chance> of <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=of> succeeding <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=succeeding> "возможность успеха человека, в которого вы верите, на которого надеетесь". Our <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=our> children <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=children> are <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=are> our <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=our> greatest <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=greatest> hope <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=hope> for <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=for> the <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=the> future <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=future>.
Анализируя выше представленные толкования, можно выделить следующие семантические компоненты лексемы hope: " вера в осуществление того, что вы хотите", "желание чего-то с уверенностью, что это произойдет", "ожидание", "произойдет то, на что вы надеетесь", "возможность осуществления чего-то хорошего, успешного", "кто-то или что-то, который поможет вам получить желаемое" и т.п. Таким образом, у концепта hope выделяются такие понятийные признаки, как ‘вера’, ‘желание’, ‘ожидание’, ‘опора’, ‘возможность’, ‘предмет желания’.
Ряды синонимов принято рассматривать как цепочку слов, связанных между собой семантически, в данном ряду каждая лексема отличается от остальных своим значением и в то же время имеет общий компонент.
Рассматривая синонимический ряд слов, с общим компонентом - hope, следует выделить слова, которые соответствуют понятийным признакам.
Согласно словарю "The Oxford Thesaurus", hope соответствуют две группы слов-синонимов, каждая из которых имеет свой оттенок значения:
1) desire, dream, wish, expectation, fancy, craving, longing, ambition
2) promise, expectation, confidence, anticipation, faith, belief, trust, conviction
Первая группа синонимов сходна с hope в значении ‘желание’.
Согласно "Macmillan Dictionary and Thesaurus: Free English Dictionary Online":
1) desire - <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=a> strong <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=strong> feeling <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=feeling> of <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=of> wanting <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=wanting> to <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=to> have <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=have> or <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=or> to <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=to> do <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=do> something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> "сильное желание обладать чем-то или что-то сделать"
) dream - something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> good <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=good> that <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=that> you <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=you> hope <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=hope> you <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=you> will <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=will> have <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=have> or <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=or> achieve <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=achieve> in <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=in> the <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=the> future <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=future> " что-то хорошее, что вы хотите иметь или достичь в будущем"
) wish - <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=a> feeling <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=feeling> that <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=that> you <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=you> want <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=want> something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> or <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=or> want <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=want> to <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=to> do <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=do> something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> " чувство того, что вы хотите иметь или сделать"
) expectation - the <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=the> belief <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=belief> that <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=that> something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> will <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=will> happen <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=happen> " ощущение того, что что-то произойдет"
) fancy - imagination <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=imagination>, or <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=or> something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> that <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=that> you <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=you> imagine <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=imagine> or <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=or> dream <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=dream> about <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=about> "то, что вы представляете или о чем мечтаете"
) craving - <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=a> very <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=very> strong <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=strong> feeling <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=feeling> of <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=of> wanting <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=wanting> something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> " сильное желание"
) longing - <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=a> strong <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=strong> feeling <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=feeling> of <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=of> wanting <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=wanting> someone <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=someone> or <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=or> something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> "желание чего-то или кого-то"
8) ambition - something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> that <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=that> you <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=you> very <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=very> much <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=much> want <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=want> to <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=to> do <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=do>, usually <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=usually> something <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=something> that <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=that> is <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=is> difficult <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=difficult> to <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=to> achieve <https://www.macmillandictionary.com/search/british/direct/?q=achieve> " то, что вы очень хотите сделать, чаще трудновыполнимое"
Вторая группа слов сближается с лексемой hope в значении ‘предмет желания’.
1) promise - a sign, or a reason for hope that something may happen, especially something good "признак или причина надежды" или reason to expect something/ ground for expectation of success excellence or improvement т.е. "основание, причина для ожидания"
2) expectancy - a state of expecting or hoping that something good or exciting will happen "состояние ожидания или надежды на то, что случится что-то хорошее или волнующее"
3) confidence - the feeling that you can trust someone or something to be good, work well, or produce good results "чувство уверенности в том, что кто-то или что-то будет хорошим, будет исправно работать и давать хорошие результаты"
4) anticipation - the act of expecting something to happen and perhaps doing something about it now "состояние ожидания"
5) faith - a strong belief that someone or something can be trusted to be right or to do right thing "сильная уверенность в ком-то или чем-то"
6) conviction - a very strong belief or opinion "твердая вера"
7) belief - the feeling that something is definitely true or definitely exists "чувство уверенности в правдивости и существовании "
) trust - a strong belief in the honesty, goodness etc of someone or something; assured reliance on the character, ability, strength or truth of something or someone; one in which confidence is placed " вера в честность и правдивость; возможность положиться на кого-то; уверенность в ком-то".
Лексема hope широко используется в устойчивых выражениях и идиомах:
a hope chest - the things a young woman collects to use in her home after she is married "приданое". Gloria spent the next few months embroidering sheets for her hope chest.one's hopes on someone or something - to make plans or have aspirations based on someone or something " строить планы; надеяться на кого-то". I have built my hopes on making a success of this business.someone's hopes - to ruin someone's hopes; to put an end to someone's dreams or aspirations " разрушать мечты". Mary dashed my hopes when she said she wouldn't marry me.somebody's hopes up - to make someone think that what they want is going to happen " обнадеживать". If we can't afford the trip then we shouldn't get the children's hopes up.against (all) hope - to have hope even when the situation appears to be hopeless " не бросать надежду, не вешать нос". We hope against all hope that she'll see the right thing to do and do it.
have (high) hopes of something - to be expecting something " возлагать большие надежды ". I have hopes of getting there early.deferred makes the heart sick - if you have to wait a long time for something you want, you will become despairing " если приходится долго ждать что-либо, в конце концов наступает разочарование, отчаяние". Charlie waited so long for the woman he loved that he decided he didn't want to love anybody.is a good breakfast but a bad supper. It is good to start the day feeling hopeful, but if none of the things you hope for come to pass by the end of the day, you will feel disappointed. (Can be used to warn someone against hoping for something that is unlikely to happen.)" надежда хороша с утра, но плоха на ужин, т.е. может не сбыться к концу дня, жизни". Lisa began the day hoping that she would find work, and by the end of the day she had learned that hope is a good breakfast but a bad supper.a hope in hell - a very poor chance. (Usually in the negative.)" ни малейшего шанса, полное отсутствие надежды". She doesn't have a snowball's chance in hell of getting it done on time. I know I don't have a hope in hell, but I'll try anyway.
Pin your hopes on somebody/something - to depend on someone or something for a successful result. " связывать свои надежды с чем-то или кем-то". The party is pinning its hopes on its new leader, who is young, good-looking, and very popular.
Таким образом, сравнивая значение лексемы hope в вышеприведенных примерах, можно утверждать, что слово сохраняет свое первоначальное значение, а в выражениях принимает более точную эмоциональную окраску.
Существуют антонимы лексемы hope, выражающие противоположное значение: despair и despond. Согласно Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary:
1) despair - the feeling of having lost all hope " чувство полного отчаяния". Eventually, driven to despair, he threw himself under a train.
2) despond - the state of being despondent "состояние безнадежности". in their despondency they seemingly forgot that losing teams can become winning teams in a single season.
Далее, рассмотрим употребление hope на примере развернутых выражений.
Fair is Love’s first hope to gentle mind! ( Coleridge. Poetical works). In those days the colonies were still the last hope of those who could get nothing to do in Endland. ( Maugham).
Для концепта hope характерен признак " слово". Слово-надежду можно выразить - to express hope, прочитать - to read hope, высказать - hope является содержанием разговора - to tell of hope, to talk of hope, то есть у hope можно выделить признаки "смысл, значение". I earnestly expressed my hope that he wouldn’t, and held tighter to the tombstone on which he had put me. ( Dickens).
У hope признак выражается различными языковыми средствами: глаголами to live (жить), to survive (выживать), to live on (продолжать жить), прилагательными - lively hope (живая надежда). If there were any Hope alive that evening, the Captain thought, as he held his hat on, it certainly kept house, and wasn’t out of doors; ( Dickens. Dombey and Son). Captain Cuttle, like all mankind, little knew how much hope had survived within him under discouragement, until he left its death-shock. ( Dickens. Dombey and Son). Like a man who is born again to a wonderful, lively hope far exceeding the bounds of death. ( Lawrence. Women in Love). The last pale Hope that shiver’d at my heart! ( Coleridge. Poetical works). And sickly Hope with waning eye was well content to droop and die. ( Coleridge. Poetical works).
Hope также иногда сравнивают с инфекцией - she said in a tone that prevented the hope from becoming too infectious … Saki Reginald in Russia.
Важным признаком для концепта является признак " целостность". Этот признак исследуемого концепта означает завершенность, неразделенность. Fanny was all agitation and flutter - all hope and apprehension. ( Austen. Mansfield Park). One pang more blighting keen than hope betrayed. ( Coleridge. Poetical works). And his hope and his dream was to become one among those whose names are recorded in story as the gallant and adventurous benefactors. ( Shelley. Frankenstein, or, The modern Prometheus). His dearest vanities, ambitious hopes, had all been here. ( Thackeray. Vanity Fair). The sanguine hope of good, however, which the benevolence of her heart suggested, had not yet deserted her. ( Austen. Pride and Prejudice). The three students bowed very low, in the humble hope of making the impression of extreme good-breeding. ( Lawrence. Women in Love). That day so lately past, when from the crag I looked in such anxiety of hope. ( E.H. Porter Just David). She expressed an alarmed hope that he would not go very far away. ( Hardy. The Woodlanders). No fear of death will darken St. John’s last hour: His mind will be unclouded, his heart will be undaunted, his hope will be sure, his faith stead fast. ( Ch. Bronte. Jane Eyre). A hope which, when it proved to be fruitless, she felt to have been highly unreasonable. ( Austen. Northanger Abbey). My future husband was becoming to me my whole world; and more than the world: almost my hope of heaven. ( Ch. Bronte. Jane Eyre). It is she who has tumbled my hopes and all my pride down. ( Thackeray. Vanity Fair). Even when I was afterwards, on due consideration, made sensible of my condition, how I was cast on this dreadful place,out of reach of human kind, out of all hope of relief. ( Defoe. Robinson Crusou). But he found, in reply to this question that Wickham still cherished the hope of more effectually making his fortune by marriage, in some other country. ( Austen. Pride and Prejudice). A terrible hope fluttered past him. ( Wild. The picture of Dorian Gray). I went on against trust and against hope. ( Dickens. Great Expectations). His sister helped him with a hundred now and then, but of course his great was in her death. ( Thackeray. Vanity Fair). A soft hope blent with my sorrow that soon I should dare to drop a kiss on that brow of rock, and on those lips so sternly on his former subject, he conceived a spark of hope. ( Stevenson. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde). I stood straight up against the wall, my heart still going like a sledge-hammer, but with a ray of hope now shining in my bosom. ( Stevenson. Treasure Island). Her poor papa returned so melancholy from the City, that all were alarmed about him at home in fine, there were four pages of loves and fears and hopes and forebodings. ( Thackeray. Vanity Fair). As this chimed in with Mr. Dombey’s own hope and belief it gave that gentleman a still higher opinion of Mrs. Pipchin’s understanding. ( Dickens. Dombey and Son). And you’ll speak me fair, doctor, and give me a bit of hope to go on, for the sake of mercy. ( Stevenson. Treasure Island). Some dream, some affection, some hobby, at least some remote and distant hope which, though perhaps starving to nothing, still lived on, as hopes will. ( Hardy. Tess of the d’Urbervilles). When Adam and first matron Eve Had ended now their orisons, and, found Strength added from above; new hope to spring out of despair. ( Milton. Paradise Lost). That I can find no comfortable hope of cure. ( Barnabe. Sonnets). No word, no look, no motion! Yes, there was a chance, but spare to guess, nor let that moment’s hope be told. ( Shelley. Rosalind and Helen).
Примеры приведенных высказываний взяты из произведений классической английской литературы. На их основании можно сделать предположение, что hope сохранил свое первоначальное значение "желание, ожидание". Следует принять во внимание тот факт, что примеры взяты из классических произведений английских писателей и поэтов прошлых веков.
Анализируя значения hope в предложениях, сопоставляя их между собой, можно сделать вывод, что понятийные его признаки соответствуют словарным данным.
Заключение
Лингвистические концепты когнитивистики имеют сложную структуру, представленную мотивирующими, понятийными и образными признаками. Целью данной работы было выявление только одной части структуры концептов - понятийных характеристик.
Рассмотрение этимологии имени hope (предшественником которого считается древнеанглийское слово hopianв значении "желать, ожидать, с нетерпением ждать чего-либо, предвкушать") позволило сделать вывод о том, что исходными мотивирующими признаками hope являются ‘желание’ и ‘ожидание’, которые до сих пор являются базовыми понятийными признаками исследуемого концепта.
Проанализировав концепт в рамках когнитивной лингвистики, лингвокультурологии, психологии, его примеры в виде развернутых высказываний мы выявили следующее: так, исследуемой концепт hopе характеризуют следующие понятийные признаки: "ожидание", "желание", "возможность сделать что-либо хорошее", "желание положиться, довериться кому-нибудь", "предчувствие того, что обязательно случится что-то хорошее".
Список использованной литературы
1) Андрусенко В.А. Объективные основания надежды (мировоззренческий аспект) // Вестник Оренбургского государственного университета. 1999. № 3, стр 19-23.
2) Воробьев В.В. Лингвокультурный комплекс. Лингвокультурологическая парадигма личности - М, 1996.
) Воробьев В.В. Лингвокультурология. М, 1997.
) Кубрякова Е.С., Демьянков В. З, Панкрац Ю.Г., Лузина Л.Г. Краткий словарь когнитивных терминов - М, 1996.
) З.Д. Попова. К проблеме унификации лингвокогнитивной терминологии/ Попова З.Д., Стернин И. А // Введение в когнитивную лингвистику - Кемерово, 2004. Вып.4.
) Карасик В.И. Языковой круг: личность, концепты, дискурс. Карасик В.И. - Волгоград, 2002.
) Карасик В.И. Культурные концепты: проблема ценностей // Языковая личность: культурные концепты. - Волгоград, 1996. - С.3-16.
) Залевская А.А. Психолингвистический подход к проблеме концепта // Методологические проблемы когнитивной лингвистики. - Воронеж, 2001.
) Слышкин Г.Г. Лингвокультурные концепты и метаконцепты. - Волгоград, 2004.
) Слышкин Г.Г. От текста к символу. Лингвокультурные концепты прецедентных текстов в сознании и дискурсе. - М., 2000.
11) Online Etymology Dictionary - www.etymonline.com
12) Cambridge Dictionaries Online - www.dictionary. cambridge.org <https://www.dictionary.cambridge.org>
) Merriam Webster Online Dictionary - www.merriam-webster.com <https://www.merriam-webster.com>
) Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary - www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com <https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com>
) Macmillan Dictionary and Thesaurus: Free English Dictionary Online - www.macmillandictionary.com <https://www.macmillandictionary.com>
) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English - www.ldoceonline.com <https://www.ldoceonline.com>