The definite article expresses the identification or individualisation of the referent of the noun: the use of this article shows that the object denoted is taken in its concrete, individual quality.
shows a direct relationship in the meanings of the determiner and the article, the relationship in which the determiner is semantically the more explicit element of the two. Cf.:
But look at the apple-tree!→
The indefinite article, as different from the definite article, is commonly interpreted as referring the object denoted by the noun to a certain class of similar objects; in other words, the indefinite article expresses a classifying generalisation of the nounal referent, or takes it in a relatively general sense.
Nominal parts of speech.
The adjective
Next, we come to the adjective.
(1) Meaning. The adjective expresses property.[1]
(2) Form. Adjectives in Modern English are invariable. Some adjectives form, degrees of comparison (long, longer, longest).
(3) Function, (a) Adjectives combine with nouns both preceding and (occasionally) following them (large room, times immemorial). They also combine with a preceding adverb (very large). Adjectives can be followed by the phrase "preposition + noun" (free from danger). Occasionally they combine with a proceeding verb (married young), (b) in the sentence, an
The pronoun
(1) The meaning of the pronoun as a separate part of speech is somewhat difficult to define. In fact, some pronouns share essential peculiarities of nouns (e.g. he), while others have much in common with adjectives (e.g. which). This made some scholars think that pronouns were not a separate part of speech at all and should be distributed between nouns and adjectives. However, this view proved untenable and entailed insurmountable difficulties. Hence it has proved necessary to find a definition of the specific meaning of pronouns, distinguishing them from both nouns and adjectives. From this angle the meaning of pronouns as a part of speech can be stated as follows: pronouns point to the things and properties without naming them. Thus, for example, the pronoun it points to a thing without being the name of any particular class of things. The pronoun its points to the property of a thing by referring it to another thing. The pronoun what can point both to a thing and a property.
(2) Form. As far as form goes pronouns fall into different types. Some of them have the category of number (singular and plural), e. g. this, while others have no such category, e. g. somebody. Again, some pronouns have the category of case (he — him, somebody — somebody's], while others have none (something).
(3) Function, (a) Some pronouns combine with verbs (he speaks, find him), while others can also combine with a following noun (this room), (b) In the sentence, some pronouns may be the subject (he, what) or the object, while others are the attribute (my). Pronoun can be predicative
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The Numeral. The treatment of numerals presents some difficulties, too. The so-called cardinal numerals (one, two) are somewhat different from the so-called ordinal numerals (first, second)(1) Meaning. Numerals denote either number or place in a series.(2) Form. Numerals are invariable.(3) Function, (a) As far as phrases go, both cardinal and ordinal numerals combine with a following noun (three rooms, third room); occasionally a numeral follows a noun (soldiers three, George the Third), (b) In a sentence, a numeral most usually is an attribute (three rooms, the third room)^ but it can also be subject, predicative, and object: Three of them came in time; "We Are Seven" (the title of a poem by Wordsworth); / found only four,
3. Grammatical Categories of verbs in English. The general categorial meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically, i.e. developing in time. This general processual meaning is embedded in the semantics of all the verbs, including those that denote states, forms of existence, types of attitude, evaluations, etc., rather than actions. Cf.:
Edgar's room led out of the wall without a door. She had herself a liking for richness and excess. It was all over the morning papers. That's what I'm afraid of. I do love you, really I do.
And this holds true not only about the finite verb, but also about the non-finite verb. The processual semantic character of the verbal lexeme even in the non-finite form is proved by the fact that in all its forms it is modified by the adverb and, with the transitive verb, it takes a direct object. Cf.:
Mr. Brown received the visitor instantly, which was unusual. — Mr. Brown's receiving the visitor instantly was unusual. — It was unusual for Mr. Brown to receive the visitor instantly. But: An instant reception of the visitor was unusual for Mr. Brown.
The processual categorial meaning of the notional verb determines its characteristic combination with a noun expressing both the doer of the action (its subject) and, in cases of the objective verb, the recipient of the action (its object); it also determines its combination with an adverb as the modifier of the action.
In the sentence the finite verb invariably performs the function of the verb-predicate, expressing the processual
categorial features of predication, i.e. time, aspect, voice, and mood.
The non-finite verb performs different functions according to its intermediary nature (those of the syntactic subject, object, adverbial modifier, attribute), but its non-processual functions are always actualised in close combination with its processual semantic features. This is especially evident in demonstrative correlations of the "sentence — phrase" type. Cf.:
His rejecting the proposal surprised us.— That he had rejected the proposal surprised us. Taking this into consideration, her attitude can be understood. — If one takes this into consideration, her attitude can be understood.
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In other words, the non-finite forms of the verb in self-dependent use (i.e. if they are used not as parts of the analytical verb-forms) perform a potentially predicative function, constituting secondary predicative centres in the sentence. In each case of such use they refer to some subject which is expressed either explicitly or implicitly. Cf.:
Roddy cared enough about his mother to want to make amends for Arabella.→ Roddy wanted to make amends...→ Roddy will make amends... Changing gear, the taxi turned the sharp corner. → The taxi changed gear and turned the corner. Acting as mate is often more difficult than acting as captain. → One acts as mate; one acts as captain
The class of verbs falls into a number of subclasses distinguished by different semantic and lexico-grammatical features.
On the upper level of division two unequal sets are identified: the set of verbs of full nominative value (notional verbs), and the set of verbs of partial nominative value (semi-notional and functional verbs). The first set is derivationally open, it includes the bulk of the verbal lexicon. The second set is derivationally closed, it includes limited subsets of verbs characterised by individual relational properties.
Auxiliary verbs constitute grammatical elements of the categorial forms of the verb. These are the verbs be, hav The modal verbs can, may, must, shall, will, ought, need, used (to), dare are defective in forms, and are suppletively supplemented by stative groups e, do, shall, will, should, would, may, might.
To the subclass of limitive belong such verbs as arrive, come, leave, find, start, stop, conclude, aim, drop, catch, etc. Here also belong phrasal verbs with limitive postpositions, e.g. stand up, sit down, get out, be off, etc.
The verbs of the second order presenting a process as not limited by any border point, should be called, correspondingly, "unlimitive" (in the existing grammar books they are called either "non-terminative", or else "durative", or "cursive"). To this subclass belong such verbs as move, continue, live, sleep, work, behave, hope, stand, etc.
The syntactic valency falls into two cardinal types: obligatory and optional.
The obligatory valency is such as must necessarily be realised for the sake of the grammatical completion of the syntactic construction. For instance, the subject and the direct object are obligatory parts of the sentence, and, from the point of view of sentence structure, they are obligatory valency partners of the verb. Consequently, we say that the subjective and the direct objective valencies of the verb are obligatory. E.g.: We saw a house in the distance.
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This sentence presents a case of a complete English syntactic construction. If we eliminate either its subject or object, the remaining part of the construction will be structurally incomplete, i.e. it will be structurally "gaping". Cf.: * We saw in the distance. * Saw a house in the distance.
The optional valency, as different from the obligatory valency, is such as is not necessarily realised in grammatically complete constructions: this type of valency may or may not be realised depending on the concrete information to be conveyed by the utterance. Most of the adverbial modifiers are optional parts of the sentence, so in terms of valency we say that the adverbial valency of the verb is mostly optional. For instance, the adverbial part in the above sentence may be freely eliminated without causing the remainder of the sentence to be structurally incomplete: We saw a house (in the distance).
The expression of the category of person is essentially confined to the singular form of the verb in the present tense of the indicative mood and, besides, is very singularly presented in the future tense. As for the past tense, the person is alien to it, except for a trace of personal distinction in the archaic conjugation.
In the present tense the expression of the category of person is divided into three peculiar subsystems.
The first subsystem includes the modal verbs that have no personal inflexions: can, may, must, shall, will, ought, need, dare. So, in the formal sense, the category of person is wholly neutralised with these verbs, or, in plainer words, it is left unexpressed.
The second subsystem is made up by the unique verbal
lexeme be. The expression of person by this lexeme is the direct opposite to its expression by modal verbs: if the latter do not convey the indication of person in any morphemic sense at all, the verb be has three different suppletive personal forms, namely: am for the first person singular, is for the third person singular, and are as a feature marking the finite form negatively: neither the first, nor the third person singular. It can't be taken for the specific positive mark of the second person for the simple reason that it coincides with the plural all-person (equal to none-person) marking.
The third subsystem presents just the regular, normal expression of person with the remaining multitude of the English verbs, with each morphemic variety of them. From the formal point of view, this subsystem occupies the medial position between the first two: if the verb be is at least two-personal, the normal personal type of the verb conjugation is one-personal. Indeed, the personal mark is confined here to the third person singular -(e)s [-z, -s, -iz], the other two persons (the first and the second) remaining unmarked, e.g. comes — come, blows — blow, slops — stop, chooses — choose
The modal person-conjugation is distinguished by one morphemic mark, namely, the second person: canst, may(e)st, wilt, shalt, shouldst, wouldst, ought(e)st, need(e)st, durst.
The personal be-conjugation is complete in three explicitly marked forms, having a separate suppletive presentation for each separate person: am, art, is.The archaic person-conjugation of the rest of the verbs, though richer than the common system of person forms, still occupies the medial position between the modal and be-conjugation. Two of the three of its forms, the third and second persons, are positively marked, while the first person remains unmarked, e.g. comes — comest—come, blows — blowest — blow, stops — stoppest —stop, chooses — choosest — choose.
VERB: TENSE
The immediate expression of grammatical time, or "tense" (Lat. tempus), is one of the typical functions of the finite verb. In Modern English, the grammatical expression of verbal time, i.e. tense, is effected in two correlated stages. At the first stage, the process receives an absolutive time characteristic by means of opposing the past tense to the present tense. The marked member of this opposition is the past form. At the second stage, the process receives a non-absolutive relative time characteristic by means of opposing the forms of the future tense to the forms of no future marking
VERB: ASPECT
The aspective meaning of the verb, as different from its temporal meaning, reflects the inherent mode of the realisation of the process irrespective of its timing.
The continuous verbal forms analysed on the principles of oppositional approach admit of only one interpretation, and that is aspective. The continuous forms are aspective because, reflecting the inherent character of the process performed by the verb, they do not, and cannot, denote the timing of the process. The opposition constituting the corresponding category is effected between the continuous and the non-continuous (indefinite) verbal forms. The categorial meaning discloses the nature of development of the verbal action, on which ground the suggested name for the category as a whole will be "development". The perfect, as different from the continuous, does reflect a kind of timing, though in a purely relative way. Namely, it coordinates two times, locating one of them in retrospect towards the other. the perfect expresses not only time in relative retrospect, but also the very connection of a prior process with a time-limit reflected in a subsequent event. Thus, the perfect forms of the verb display a mixed, intermediary character, which places them apart both from the relative posterior tense and the aspective development. The true nature of the perfect is temporal aspect reflected in its own opposition, which cannot be reduced to any other opposition of the otherwise recognised verbal categories. The suggested name for this category will be "retrospective coordination", or, contractedly, "retrospect". The categorial member opposed to the perfect, for the sake of terminological consistency, will be named "imperfect" (non-perfect). As an independent category, the retrospective coordination is manifested in the integral verb-form together with the manifestations of other categories, among them the
aspective category of development. Thus, alongside of the forms of perfect continuous and perfect indefinite, the verb distinguishes also the forms of imperfect continuous and imperfect indefinite.
The aspective category of development is constituted by the opposition of the continuous forms of the verb to the non-continuous, or indefinite forms of the verb. The marked member of the opposition is the continuous, which is built up by the auxiliary be plus the present participle of the conjugated verb. In symbolic notation it is represented by the formula be...ing. The categorial meaning of the continuous is "action in progress"; the unmarked member of the opposition, the indefinite, leaves this meaning unspecified, i.e. expresses the non-continuous.
The category of retrospective coordination (retrospect) is constituted by the opposition of the perfect forms of the verb to the non-perfect, or imperfect forms. The marked member of the opposition is the perfect, which is built up by the auxiliary have in combination with the past participle of the conjugated
verb. In symbolic notation it is expressed by the formula have... en.
The difference between the perfect and non-perfect forms of the verb, according to the tense interpretation of the perfect, consists in the fact that the perfect denotes a secondary temporal characteristic of the action. Namely, it shows that the denoted action precedes some other action or situation in the present, past, or future.
VERB: VOICE
The verbal category of voice shows the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic construction.
The voice of the English verb is expressed by the opposition of the passive form of the verb to the active form of the verb. The sign marking the passive form is the combination of the auxiliary be with the past participle of the conjugated verb (in symbolic notation: be... en — see Ch. II, § 5). The passive form as the strong member of the opposition expresses reception of the action by the subject of the syntactic construction (i.e. the "passive" subject, denoting the object of the action); the active form as the weak member of the opposition leaves this meaning unspecified, i.e. it expresses "non-passivity".
The Verb- Voice. 2 approaches to defin. 1 V expresses the relations b\w the doer & the action (G.Gurme, H.Boutsma, Варкударов). 2. V expresses the relation b\w the subj & the obj of the action (Гордон). V is the form of the verb, which shows whether the subject and the object affected by the predicate. Obvious opposition – active (no special indicator) & pas (aux ‘to be’). Pas is represented by tense & aspect forms. (Ex- Indef, Perf, Cont pas: pres- past- future). In E 3 types of pas constr: 1) direct passive-direct obj in AV subj in PV (was helped by..), 2) indirect pas- derived from the V wh can take non-prep obj in AV: give, ask, send…(he was asked a quest), 3 obligatory parts- sbj, pred, direct obj. No in Rus. 3) prepos passive constr- former prepos obj sbj in passive (he was laughed at by the boys), 3 parts- sbj, predict, prepos. In Rus start with prep. Not transitivity but ability to take any kind of obj is of importance while derive passive constr. ‘to be +PrtII’ has 2 gram m- 1) passive action performed upon a thing (simple pred) 2) expresses physical\ psychic state (comp nom predict). Criteria. PV if: ‘by-phrase’; adv modif of time, manner, place; perf or cont aspect; +another V in active. PV used in E more frequently, convenient not to mention the doer, or to underline him (…by the wind). In add to PV & AV- Reflexive V. Opponents- RV used after trans v should be treated as direct obj (She washed herself and a child). Supporters in favor- peculiar gram m shows that the action is concentrated un the doer (I wash myself), в рус «-ся». A paradigm \a set of forms united by 1 gram m\ of the RV (V+ myself, himself…). can accept the idea of 3 voices in E.
VERB: MOOD
§ 1. The category of mood, undoubtedly, is the most controversial category of the verb. The category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality. The category of mood, undoubtedly, is the most controversial category of the verb. The category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality. The Verb- Mood.. Vinogr: mood expr-s the relation of the action to reality as stated by the speaker. we can represent an action as a real fact, unreal but highly probable, very doubtful. The # of moods- disputable, fluctuates from 2 (Imp excluded) to 16. Tradit # of moods is 3. Feature- the bare infin, can be met in all 3 moods.)Go there. I insist he go there. I go there.) (1)The Ind.M. shows that the speaker represents an action as a real fact. It represents every action as corresponding to reality. Doubts- in the Future of the Ind M the action has not been performed so it doesn’t correspond to reality. But if compare with Subj M - degree of its probability is higher. (1)I’ll come & help you. 2)I would like to come & help you). (2) The Imper M..Not all scholars (Curme) include it because it is represented by 1 form only which is homonymous to the form of bare infinitive & it has no paradigm. H.Sweet- it has its own gram.m. diff from the Ind. or Subj.M-s. Features: it has no person, number, tense distinctions. it’s used only in 1 type of sent (imper). it has a specific modal meaning of inducement (a command, prohibition, order, request, advice, offer, invitation). The negative form is alw derived with the help of aux. ‘do’ including the V ‘to be’, if with bare inf- negat particle before it (we decided not to go there). It has an analytical construction (to address to the 3d pers). Analytical & synthetic forms. (Let me speak (anal). Speak! (synth).). (3) Subj M.- to present an action as unreal, as a supposition. Very old- in OE synthet-ly w\h of inflections reduced, coincided with the Ind M., homonymy. In early ModE- analyt forms (aux-es should/would, may/might, could). 2 tense forms- express various degrees of probability of an action. Pres Subj- in the form of likelihood, hopefulness, action refers to the Pres, Fut, chance to perform it (. If you invited me to your birthday party I would come). Past Subj- unlikelihood, imposs (perfect forms of V) (If you had invited me I should have come). 2 forms- synth=bare inf (I demand he go there), analyt- pres.subj (should would may could + inf) past (+perf.inf). 2 fields of use: contex free- simple sent to express good will (God bless you!). Cases- subj m homon to ind m.BUT unambig case- 3d pers sing in Ind m (inflex –s). Attention to gram & lex indicators.(I know he does it. I demand he do it.) Contex bound usage- a variety of dif combinations of forms. 1) In princ clause - it’s necessary, imp, oblige in subord cl- synth form or analyt should+inf (It is agreed that they discuss the matter right now). 2) in attributive clauses after the N-s: decision, demand, order synth or analyt. (My recommendation is that you take your exam in May.) The purpose- gram indic conj that, so that + may/might \ can/could + inf. (She rushed forward so that she might see everything). –conj lest & should+inf (She started running lest she should miss the train). Sequence of tenses: 1) princ & subord cl- simult action synth form of Past Subj (She looked at me as if she were concealing smth). 2) action in subord follows action of princ in subord would+inf.