For biology, psychology and social sciences, there can be a huge variety of methods to choose from, and a researcher will have to justify their choice. Whilst slightly arbitrary, the best way to look at the various methods is in terms of "strength".
Experimental Research Methods
The first method is the straightforward experiment, involving the standard practice of manipulating quantitative, independent variables to generate statistically analyzable data. Generally, the system of scientific measurements is interval
or ratio based. When we talk about "scientific research methods", this is what most people immediately think of, because it passes all of the definitions of "true science". The researcher is accepting or refuting the null hypothesis. The results generated are analyzable and are used to test hypotheses, with statistics giving
a clear and unambiguous picture.
This research method is one of the most difficult, requiring rigorous design and a great deal of expense, especially for larger experiments. The other problem, where real life organisms are used, is that taking something out of its natural environment can seriously affect its behavior.
It is often argued that, in some fields of research, experimental research is "too" accurate. It is also the biggest drain on time and resources, and is often impossible to perform for some fields, because of ethical considerations.
In other fields of study, which do not always have the luxury of definable and quantifiable variables – you need to use different research methods. These should attempt to fit all of the definitions of repeatability or falsifiability, although this is not always feasible.
Opinion Based Research Methods
Opinion based research methods generally involve designing an experiment and collecting quantitative data. For this type of research, the measurements are usually arbitrary, following the ordinal or interval type.
Questionnaires are an effective way of quantifying data from a sample group, and testing emotions or preferences. This method is very cheap and easy, where budget is a problem, and gives an element of scale to opinion and emotion. These figures are arbitrary, but at least give a directional method of measuring intensity.
Quantifying behavior is another way of performing this research, with researchers often applying a "numerical scale" to the type, or intensity, of behavior.
By definition, this experiment method must be used where emotions or behaviors are measured, as there is no other way of defining the variables. Whilst not as robust as experimental research, the methods can be replicated and the results falsified.
Observational Research Methods
Observational research is a group of different research methods where researchers try to observe a phenomenon without interfering too much.
Observational research methods, such as the case study, are probably
the furthest removed from the established scientific method. This type is looked down upon, by many scientists, as "quasi-experimental" research, although this is usually an unfair criticism. Observational research tends to use nominal or ordinal scales of measurement.
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Observational research often has no clearly defined research problem, and questions may arise during the course of the study. For example, a researcher may notice unusual behavior and ask, "What is happening?" or "Why?"
Observation is heavily used in social sciences, behavioral studies and anthropology, as a way of studying a group without affecting their behavior. Whilst the experiment cannot be replicated or falsified, it still offers unique insights, and will advance human knowledge.
Case studies are often used as a pre-cursor to more rigorous methods, and avoid the problem of the experiment environment affecting the behavior of
an organism. Observational research methods are useful when ethics are a problem.
Conclusion
In an ideal world, experimental research methods would be used for every type of research, fulfilling all of the requirements of falsifiability and generalization.
| Exercise 5. Answer the following questions using the information from the text. |
1. What does experimental research method involve?
2. Why is this research method considered to be one of the most difficult?
3. What does opinion based research method generally involve?
4. What is an effective way of quantifying data?
5. When is opinion based experiment method usually used?
6. What method is used when the researcher tries to observe a phenomenon without interfering too much?
7. What is often used in more rigorous methods?
| Exercise 6.Choose the right term from the table for every sentence. |
| · apparatus · hypotheses · employ · quantifying data · methodology · observational · carry out |
1. We may … a procedure or an experiment or a pilot study. (preliminary study) 2. We use or, more formally, … a method or a technique or an approach or
an instrument or a device. (an object or method used for a special purpose)
3. You can also use or employ any particular type of research …. 4. …, equipment for a lab experiment, is assembled and checked. 5. … research often has no clearly defined research problem. 6. Questionnaires are an effective way of … from a sample group. 7. The results are analyzed and used to test ….
| Exercise 7. Match the synonyms from tables A and B (words written in bold type). |
A.
| detailed; not natural; altering; do in exactly the same way; making it change; typical; comes to conclusions on the basis of; show something is not true; makes changes to; something that exists and can be seen, felt, tasted, etc. |
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B. Types of research method
| Research method | What the researcher does | Limitation of method |
| Experimen-tal study | manipulates1 a variable [anything that can vary] under highly controlled conditions to see if this produces [causes] any changes in a second [dependent] variable | done in the highly controlled setting of the laboratory –these conditions are artificial2 and may not reflect what happens in the infinitely more complex real world; other researchers often try to replicate3 successful experiments |
| Correlatio-nal study | attempts to determine the relationship between two or more variables, usingmathematical techniques for summarising data | only shows that two variables are related in a systematic way, but does not prove or disprove4 that the relationship is a cause-and-effect relationship |
| Naturalistic (empirical) observation (also known asField study) | observes and records some behaviour or phenomenon5, often over a prolonged period, in its natural setting without interfering with6 the subjects or phenomena in any way | can be very time-consuming as researcher may have to wait for some time to observe the behaviour or phenomenon of interest; difficult to observe behaviour without disrupting7 it |
| Survey | makes inferences from8 data collected via interviews or questionnaires | intentional deception, poor memory, or misunderstanding of the question can all contribute to inaccuracies in the data |
| Case study | keeps in-depth9 descriptive records, as an outside observer, of an individual or group | often involves only a single individual as the subject of the study and this person may not be representative10 of the general group or population |
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| Exercise 8. The logical structure of a research paper rests (among other things) on linking words and phrases. Say what part of research (a–f) the following expressions (1–12) refer to. |
| a) Introducing Work b) Referring to the Literature c) Introducing Criticism d) Describing Methods e) Reporting Results f) Writing Conclusions / Describing Findings |
| 1. Of the initial cohort of 123 students, 66 were female and 57 male... 2. In the new global economy, X has become a central issue for... 3. However, Jones (2003) points out / argues that... 4. One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that... 5. Several attempts have been made to... (Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001) 6. This dissertation follows a case-study design, with in-depth analysis of... 7. This paper will focus on / examine / give an account of/address the following questions... 8. The majority of those surveyed / respondents/those who responded felt that... 9. Qualitative and quantitative research designs were adopted to provide both descriptive, interpretive and empirical data. 10. Recent evidence suggests / have revealed that... (Smith, 1996; Jones 1999; Johnson, 2001) 11. These findings enhance / add considerably to our understanding of... 12. The X theory has been vigorously / strongly challenged in recent years by a number of writers. |
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| Exercise 9.Make up two lists of useful expressions (English and Russian) that you can use in your own research paper / abstract / article. Arrange them according to the headings (a–f) in Exercise 8. This list makes Portfolio entry. |
| Exercise 10.Go to https://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/ and choose 3 more phrases from the bank for each part of research. Write them down to exchange with your peers in class. |
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| Exercise 11.Use the University library resources to get acquainted with Russian dissertations and dissertation synopses in your subject area. Write out 10–15 Russian research phrases and cliches. |
| Exercise 12.Work in pairs. Match the following words denoting types of research with their descriptions: exploratory, descriptive, analytical, predictive. |
1. This type of research can be used to identify and classify the elements or characteristics of the subject, e. g. number of days lost because of industrial action.
2. This type of research often extends the descriptive approach to suggest or explain why or how something is happening, e. g. underlying causes of industrial action.
3. This type of research is undertaken when few or no previous studies exist.
4. The aim of this type of research is to speculate intelligently on future possibilities, based on close analysis of available evidence of cause and effect.
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| Exercise 13. Translate the following sentences into English. |
1. Научная парадигма является фундаментом любого исследования. Томас Кун определяет научную парадигму как "признанные всеми научные достижения, которые в течение определенного времени дают научному сообществу модель постановки проблем и их решений".
2. Возможно, ученым, отшлифовавшим свое мастерство научных исследо-ваний на использовании сугубо количественных методов, качественные маркетинговые методы могут показаться недостаточно эффективными
и поэтому ненадежными.
3. Соотношение разных методов исследования в разных областях знаний неодинаково. Основной посыл статьи состоит в необходимости компен-сировать преобладающие количественные методы качественными для повышения эффективности маркетинговых исследований.
4. Данное научное исследование демонстрирует сдвиг в традиционном на-правлении исследований. Убедительность выводов обеспечивается логи-чной аргументацией, лежащей в основе практической части и присущей всему исследованию в целом. Небольшие недочеты не снижают достоинства данного исследования.
| Exercise 14. Speak on the ways of organizing scientific information, use the material from the text and the table in Exercise 4. |
TEXT 2
| Exercise 1. Read and translate the text using a dictionary if necessary, find out the ways of organizing the information when you write a scientific work. |
How to Write a Scientific Paper
Judges will read your research paper. Your paper SHOULD have eight sections: Title page, Table of Contents, Summary, Introduction, Methodology, Discussion, Conclusions, Credits and References.
You start with a title. Use the same title for your paper that you used for your project. Center the title near the middle of the page. Towards the lower right corner, place your name, the name of your school and your grade level.
The table of contents is written after your paper is complete and after you have numbered all the pages.
An abstract is an overview. The first part of your paper is the part that you write last. Your abstract is a short section, approximately 250 words. It contains clear but brief summary statements. You summarize: (a) the problem or question(s) you are studying, (b) the action that you took in your investigation, (c) the results of your experiment(s), and (d) your most important conclusions based on your results. Display a copy on your project.
The introduction tells what you are going to do. This sets the scene for your report. The introduction explains what prompted your research and what you hoped to achieve. The first part of the introduction tells the reader your understanding of the subject when you started your project. Next tell how you became interested in your project. Then describe some information that you found when you studied your subject, for example: historical and scientific background, similar experiments done by others, and any contradictions or unanswered questions you may have found. Finish the section with statements that: (1) describe exactly what you want to prove or disprove, (2) tell why this proof should be done, (3) detail the information that you want to obtain from your project, and (4) tell how this information could be used. The time to write the initial version of the introduction is while you are planning and starting your project!
Methodology tells how you did your experiment. This section gives all
the details about how you conducted the experiment. Describe in detail how you derived your data and observations. It is so precise that another person could repeat your work just by following your instructions. List all materials that you used. Any apparatus you constructed should be photographed or drawn and discussed. Photographs, sketches and diagrams help to make your ideas clear.
Answer questions that apply to your project, such as: What and how was it measured? What variables did you collect data for? How did you run the control experiment? What subjects did you use? How or where were your supplies mixed, made or grown?
The discussion talks about your data. The discussion of your project is
the heart of the paper. It will usually contain several subsections. A good way to begin is to present all of your observations and data in both as – collected and processed forms. Discuss how and why you processed your data. Explain anything you assumed to process the data. Tables, charts and graphs are very helpful. Place all graphics in the paper near the paragraphs in which they are discussed. Clearly label and identify all columns, axes and data. Each item must have its own title.
A complete paper will include a discussion of possible errors. How did the data vary between repeated observations of similar events? How were your results affected by uncontrolled events? What are the sources of possible error? How large are these errors? What would you do differently if you were to repeat this project? What other experiments still need to be conducted?
The conclusion is a summary of your results. The conclusion restates briefly the findings and results detailed in your discussions. Do not mention new topics or speculations unless you referred to them in the discussion. Conclusions are based on your work and experiments. They do not come from news articles and textbooks. Make a comparison with theories, commonly held beliefs and/or expected results. Your conclusions and implications should flow smoothly and logically from your data. Be thorough. Let your readers know exactly what you did. Let them follow your train of thought.
Give credit where credit is due. The last section of your paper gives credit to other people for their work and assistance. First, a list of credits recognizes the aid given to you by people, business and institutions. Second, list the references you used. This is called a bibliography. This recognizes the information taken from the works and writings of other people. There are standard bibliography forms. See your English teacher.
A first-class look requires extra care. Carefully review your first draft. Check for correct spelling. Since you are very familiar with your project it is easy to leave out important details. Let an adult who is not familiar with your project read your paper. If they have trouble understanding your paper, maybe you left something out. Have your paper proofread a final time, then type
the final draft with double spaced lines. If you can't type, get help from someone who can.
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| Exercise 2. Discuss with your partner the structure of your research paper, prove your opinion using information from the text. |