In early medieval England, there was no written law. Each feudal lord or baron administered justice personally. Although these baronial courts had similarities, the laws were different in different places. Disputes were settled on the basis of local customs and the baron’s judgment. In time, the king was able to establish a system of courts, which enforced a common law throughout England. The rules of law, which were stated in these early cases, became precedents (examples) for settling future, similar cases. In the beginning, few decisions were recorded, and so the early common law was sometimes known as “unwritten law.” Finally, the principles and rules announced by the courts were preserved in writing. Thus, particular rules became fixed, and people knew what to expect if similar problems arose in the future. This resulted in what has come to be known as the Common Law - judge-made case law that has its origin in the traditions, customs, and trade practices of the people.
The English common law began to develop after the conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066. To keep order and peace, the Kings of England tried to create a uniform or «common» law to govern the different regions of the British Isles. Circuit-riding judges (выездная сессия суда) and the use of the jury aided the Norman Kings in the consolidation of their kingdom. In medieval England, sometimes there was no remedy available from a common law court to enforce certain rights or to correct certain wrongs. This was because in civil cases the court could give only monetary damages. A person who wanted any other kind of relief would appeal directly to the king. The king would refer the person to his chancellor, who was usually a clergyman of good conscience and fairness. The chancellor would hear the case without a jury and would then give appropriate relief. Such hearings developed into what came to be known as a separate system of Courts of Equity.
For example, suppose that Citizen A promised to sell a parcel of land to Citizen В and then refused to complete the deal. Citizen В could have then bought a similar, but possibly more expensive, parcel of land and sued in a common law court for money damages to cover the extra cost. But every piece of land is unique in location. Therefore if the original parcel was desired, Citizen В could have gone to the chancellor for equitable relief. The chancellor would have ordered specific performance of the agreement. Thus, the seller would have had to deliver the land as promised.
Answer the questions:
1. Was there any written law in medieval England?
2. How was justice administered in early medieval England?
3. What are precedents?
4. What is Common law based on?
5. Who examines cases and pronounces judgment in the Courts of Equity?
TEXT D
THE MAGNA CARTA
In 1215, the English barons forced the English King John I to sign and adopt the Magna Carta, which provided for them certain guarantees and protection against unreasonable acts of the king. Later, the Magna Carta was revised, and other documents, such as the English Bill of Rights (1689), were adopted.
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When the thirteen American colonies broke away from Great Britain after the Revolutionary War, the colonists adopted the principles of the Magna Carta and the Common law. These principles became the foundation of the legal system of US federal government and of all the states.
Today, the two great systems of law in the Western world are the Common law of the English-speaking world and the Roman civil law found on the continent of Europe. Both systems have the same objectives, but they differ in origins and methods. The Roman civil law originated in codes (systematic collections of written rules of law) imposed on the people by the emperors of ancient Rome. In contrast, the English common law originated in decisions of judges based on widely held customs of the people. Also, English common law uniquely provides for trial by a jury of one's peers (equals).
The English colonies in America recognized the English common law as governing until July 4, 1776. After that date, existing rules were retained, but further changes in the law were made in the courts of the newly formed American country. The Common Law, with its emphasis on judges making rules of law, continues to serve well till now.
Answer the questions:
1. When was the Magna Carta adopted?
2. What did the Magna Carta provide?
3. What principles of law did first American states adopt after they broke away from Great Britain?
4. How do the two great systems of law, Common law and the Roman civil law, differ?
Match the following:
| common law | completion of an agreement as promised |
| equity | body of regulations imposed by emperors of ancient Rome |
| Magna Carta | great charter of liberties for English people |
| Roman civil law | form of justice administered when there is no suitable remedy available in common law courts |
| specific performance | case law, reflecting customs of the people |
Translate into English:
1. Сегодня в мире имеются две больших системы права – Общее право в англоязычных странах и Римское гражданское право в Европе и ряде других стран. 2. Обе системы имеют одинаковые цели, но они отличаются по происхождению и методам. 3. Римское гражданское право основано на кодексах, принятых императорами древнего Рима. 4. Английское общее право основано на предыдущих решениях судей. 5. Общее право предусматривает использование суда присяжных.
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Vocabulary
administer justice - отправлять, осуществлять, обеспечивать правосудие
appeal - обжаловать
archeological expedition - археологическая экспедиция
archive - архив
authority - власть
award - присужденное наказание, решение (судей)
ban - запрещать
Bill of Rights - Билль о правах
break away - отделиться
carry over - переносить
carve - высекать, вырезать
case - судебное дело
chancellor - судья в суде лорда-канцлера
civil case - гражданское дело
clergyman - священник
Common law - Общее право
compile - составлять (книгу, сборник и т.д.)
comprehensive - полный
controversy - конфликт, спор
corpus - лат. свод законов, кодекс
Courts of Equity - суды справедливости
cuneiform - клинопись
deal with - иметь дело с чём-л.; рассматривать что-л.
death penalty - смертная казнь
deliver - уступать, сдавать, отдавать
divinely inspired - божественный, священный
Draco ['dreikou] - Драконт, афинский законодатель
Emperor Napoleon - император Наполеон
enforce - осуществлять, приводить в исполнение
enslave - делать рабом, порабощать
equitable - справедливый, объективный
equitable relief - средство судебной защиты по праву справедливости
fairness - честность, справедливость, законность
false accusation - лживое обвинение
feudal lord - феодал
force - заставлять, вынуждать
good conscience - чистая совесть
handle - справляться с чeм-л.
harsh - суровый
homicide - убийство
inflict - наносить
inheritance - наследование
injury - повреждение
Justinian Code - Кодекс Юстиниана
medieval - средневековый
monetary damages - денежный ущерб
natural law - естественный закон
offence - нарушение, преступление
offender - преступник
paragraph - параграф, пункт; статья закона
parcel of land - участок земли
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peer - равный, ровня
penalty - наказание, взыскание, штраф
pillar - столб, колонна
precedent - прецедент
prosperity - процветание
punishment - кара, наказание
real property - недвижимость
refer - направлять; отсылать
regulation - правило, регламент, предписание, постановление
reign over - царствовать
relief - помощь
remedy - средство судебной защиты, средство защиты права
repeal - аннулировать, отменять закон
retain - сохранять
revenge - месть
set forth - излагать, формулировать
settle a dispute - разрешать спор
slave owner - рабовладелец
specific performance - исполнение договора в натуре
sponsorship - покровительство
statement - изложение, заявление, утверждение
sue - возбуждать дело, судиться
take into account - принимать во внимание
temple - храм
the Magna Carta - Великая Хартия Вольностей
thief (мн.ч. thieves) - вор
trial - судебное разбирательство; судебный процесс, суд
trial jury - суд присяжных
trivial - 1) обычный, тривиальный; 2) незначительный
unreasonable - неразумный, необдуманный
victim - жертва
wrong - правонарушение, преступление
LESSON 3
GRAMMAR: COMPLEX OBJECT, REVISION OF PERFECT FORMS, PASSIVE VOICE
TEXT A: CONSTITUTIONAL LAW AND ITS NATURE
TEXT B: CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSTITUTIONS
TEXT C: 
UNITARY, FEDERAL, AND REGIONALIST SYSTEMS
TEXT D: EXECUTIVES AND LEGISLATURES
Complex Object (Сложное дополнение)
Сложное дополнение представляет собой сочетание существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объектном падеже с глаголом в форме инфинитива. На русский язык сложное дополнение переводится дополнительным придаточным предложением чаще всего с союзом «что» или «чтобы», в котором существительное или местоимение является подлежащим, а неопределенная форма глагола переводится глаголом-сказуемым в личной форме.
I want my son to become a lawyer.
Я хочу, чтобы мой сын стал юристом.
I would like him to translate this article.
Я хотел бы, чтобы он перевел эту статью.
Сложное дополнение часто употребляется после глаголов, выражающих желание, предположение или восприятие органами чувств:
| to want | - хотеть |
| to wish | - желать |
| to see | - видеть |
| to hear | - слышать |
| to feel | - чувствовать |
| to expect | - ожидать |
| to know | - знать |
| to observe | - наблюдать |
| to think | - думать |
| to believe | - верить, полагать |
| to consider | - считать |
| to suppose | - полагать |
| to regard | - считать |
| to watch | - наблюдать |
Основными глаголами восприятия являются to see в значении «видеть» и to hear в значении «слышать». После этих глаголов употребляется сложное дополнение, которое может состоять из существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объектном падеже + Причастие I
I saw him running. Я видел, как он бежал.
I heard her speaking on the phone. Я слышал, как она разговаривает по телефону.
Сложное дополнение после глаголов этой группы может также состоять из существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объектном падеже + инфинитив без частицы “to”.
We saw him leave the house.
Task 1. Translate into Russian paying attention to complex objects:
1. Nobody noticed him leave the house. 2. The police tried to find witnesses but no one saw the crime happen. 3. I didn’t even try to make him change his mind. 4. I would like you to practice your English every day. 5. Everybody expected the talks to be a success. 6. We expect the problem to be solved in the nearest future. 7. I want your report to be ready by the end of the week. 8. I want the bill paid at once. 9. The chief would like you to come up with your own conclusions.
Task 2. Paraphrase the following sentences using complex objects with the infinitive:
Pattern: He went away. (to watch)
She watched him go away.
1. He came back so soon. (not to expect)
2. One of the customers addresses the shop-assistant. (to hear)
3. You will be happy. (to want)
4. The translation will be finished soon. (to expect)
5. He’ll be imprisoned for life. (to expect)
6. They returned home early that night. (to see)
7. She’ll be absent for another week. (to expect)
8. He is the best lawyer I’ve ever seen. (to consider)
Task 3. Paraphrase the following sentences using complex objects with Participle I:
Pattern: Look. There is Tony. He is waiting for someone.
1. She is reading a fairy tale to her children
2. Listen. That’s Rose. She is practicing. She is having contest tomorrow.
3. Look! There is Ann. She is waving at us.
4. Listen! Someone is talking in the hall.
5. Listen! That is your sister. She is asking you to come home.
6. Look! Those students are having a break.
7. Listen! Someone is knocking at the door.
8. Look! Someone is breaking out of the jail.
TEXT A
Before reading the text 1) learn to pronounce the following words correctly:
| [a:] branch parliament vastly command | [ ] public government governance multiply custom thus entrust | [o:] law according important broad organize conform alter glorious score ought | [o] authority modern operate modify quarrel prominent solemn monarch possible offspring | [i:] treat mean procedure conceivable even frequent complete supreme legal |
| [i] citizen administer written principle consider religious jurisdiction | [e] governmental fundamental regulate generally respective extent contender | success evidence essence comprehensive essential however | [æ] national nationalism anarchy pattern matter absolute | catholic establish character |
| [u:] rule include through | [ei] relation congregation label shape nature | [ai] describe prescribe right bylaw guide | [ou] appropriate potent goal social compose Roman control | [εә] affair invariably therefore elsewhere |
| [ә:] certain church term alternative reserve | [au] endow throughout | [iә] idea theory | [ju:] constitution constitutional distribution community pursue |
2) translate the following groups of words:
to constitute – a constitution – constitutional; law – lawful – unlawful – lawfully – unlawfully; power – to empower – powerful – powerfully; to distribute – distribution – a distributor; to authorize – authority – authoritative; to govern – a governor – government – governmental – non-governmental; to administer – an administrator – administration – administrative; social – society; to organize – an organizer – organization – organizational; to proceed – procedure – procedural; to differ – different – differently – difference – indifference; to determine – determination – determinant; to establish – to disestablish – establisher – establishment; to institute – institution – institutional.
Read Text A and answer the following questions:
1. What is constitutional law? Why is it so important?
2. What does the word “constitution” mean? What is the constitution of a political community composed of?
3. Which country first followed the idea of stating in an orderly, comprehensive document the essentials of the rules that must guide the operations of government?