REVISING KEY GRAMMAR ITEMS
For Senior Science Students
Составители: И.Ю.Коваленко
О.Д. Шляхова
Т.Ю. Моисеева
Moscow
Г
Пособие предназначено для студентов старших курсов физического факультета МГУ и ставит целью повторить наиболее типичные для естественнонаучного текста грамматические явления английского языка, чтобы снять трудности при переводе литературы по специальности.
Пособие состоит из двух частей. В первой части предлагаются грамматические модели для перевода с последующими упражнениями на закрепление материала. Вторая часть содержит отрывки из аутентичных англоязычных источников, работа над которыми позволит студентам узнавать изучаемые грамматические структуры в научном тексте и адекватно переводить их на русский язык.
Составители: зав. кафедрой английского языка физического факультета МГУ, доцент И.Ю.Коваленко
доцент О.Д. Шляхова
ст. преподаватель, Т.Ю. Моисеева
CONTENTS
I. Construction “there is / there are”
II. Multifunctional words: “it”, “one”, “that / these / those”
III. Passive Voice
IV. Infinitive and Infinitive Constructions
V. Participle and Absolute Participial Construction
VI. Gerund and Gerundial Constructions
VII. Modal Verbs
VIII. Conditional sentences
IX. Oblique Moods
X. Emphasis
XI. Inversion
XII. Noun Chains
XIII. Excerpts for translation
I. Construction “there is/ there are”
| Although gravitational radiation has not been detected directly, there isconvincing evidence for its existence. Хотя гравитационное излучение не было непосредственно зафиксировано, есть убедительное доказательство его существования. |
1. Since there is no limit to how short the wavelengths of the Maxwell field can be, there are an infinite number of different wavelengths in any region of spacetime and an infinite amount of ground state energy.
2. I still believe there are grounds for cautious optimism that we may now be
near the end of the search for the ultimate laws of nature.
3. Because of this problem, there was a change of opinion in favour of what are called string theories.
4. With the advent of quantum mechanics, we have come to realize that events cannot be predicted with complete accuracy but that there is always a degree of uncertainty.
5. There has been no direct lab detection of dark-matter particles yet.
6. Black holes are one of only a fairly small number of cases in the history of science in which a theory was developed in great detail as a mathematical model before there was any evidence from observations that it was correct.
7. The work that Roger Penrose and Stephen Hawking did between 1965 and
1970 showed that, according to general relativity, there must be a singularity
of infinite density and space-time curvature within a black hole.
8. Since there are so many sources of vacuum energy, presumably the solution
to the cosmological-constant problem must await a unified theory of
everything.
9. There are a number of different varieties of quarks: there are thought to be at
least six "flavors", which we call up, down, strange, charmed, bottom and
top.
II. Multifunctional words
It
a) “it”: subject
| In relativity it is implicitly assumed that spacetime distances can be measured to any desired accuracy. (formal subject) В теории относительности по умолчанию подразумевается, что расстояния пространства-времени можно измерить с любой требуемой степенью точности. Since graphene is a transparent conductor, it can be used in applications such as touch screens, light panels and solar cells, where it can replace rather fragile and expensive Indium-Tin-Oxide. (subject) Так как графен – пропускающий свет проводник, его можно использовать в качестве сенсорных экранов, световых табло и солнечных батарей, где он может заменить довольно хрупкий и дорогой оксид индия и олова. |
1. It is interesting to note that the use of Archimedes’ principle by itself does not fully account for the variations in the thickness of the earth’s crust.
2. It is important to realize that probabilities in quantum physics are not like probabilities Newtonian physics, or in everyday life.
3. Air over the equator has the full tangential velocity of 1670 km/hr and as it travels north, say, it will retain this velocity; to an observer outside the earth it would be clear. However, to an observer in Rome it appears to be moving eastwards, because the earth at that point is moving eastwards more slowly than the air.
4. It takes light 11 years to travel from the star 61 Cygni to us; 61 Cygni is therefore said to be 11 light-years distant from us.
5. There can be nothing simpler than an elementary particle: it is an indivisible shard of matter, without internal structure and without detectable shape or size.
6. The stability of a nucleus partly depends on its mass, which in turn depends on the masses of the baryons it is made of.
7. Earth, however, does not have one single age of formation. It appears to have formed over a period of about 100 Myr from the beginning of the solar system.
8. Up to 1956 it was believed that the laws of physics obeyed each of the three symmetries called C, P, and T.
9. In some situations it makes sense to start the experiment by arranging for the dependent variable to take its largest reasonable value and its smallest reasonable value.
b) “it”: object
| Thus far we have used "coherence" without really defining it. До сих пор мы использовали понятие «когерентность», не давая ему определения. (object) Advances in space technology and instrumentation now make it possible to determine the composition of samples of matter from elsewhere in our galaxy, the Milky Way. (formal object) Достижения в развитии космической технологии и приборостроения теперь делают возможным определить состав образцов вещества, взятых в любой точке галактики, Млечного пути. |
1. As with many terms in physics, the meaning of coherence depends on the context of its use and, to some extent, on the community using it.
2. Reduced ion energies make it difficult to maintain convergence of the particle beam due to the mutual repulsion of ions bearing like charges.
3. Advances in space technology and instrumentation now make it possible to determine the composition of samples of matter from elsewhere in our galaxy, the Milky Way.
4. Graphene has a number of properties which make it interesting for several different applications.
One
a) “One”: indefinite personal pronoun
| In order to calculate the eclipse probability of such a randomly oriented system one must assume masses for both stars. Для того чтобы вычислить вероятность затмения такой случайно-ориентированной системы, необходимо сделать предположение о значениях масс обеих звезд. |
1. It will also enable one to access the nonlinear regime of quantum electrodynamics, where the effects of radiative damping are no longer negligible.
2. One can map the motion of the spins by moving the position of the probe beam.
3. As lattice vibrations fall with thermodynamic temperature, one would expect that their contribution to resistivity would decrease at low temperatures, eventually becoming zero at 0K.
4. One might expect commensurate simplicity in the theories that describe such particles; at least one might expect the structure of the world to be explained with a minimum number of particles and forces.
5. There are two techniques for vector multiplication. One produces a vector product called vector multiplication, the other a scalar product. Which is chosen depends on the circumstances.
6. To determine the volume of melted sea ice and the associated changes in the heat lost or gained by the ice cover, one must make a basin-wide sampling not only of the ice’s area but also of its thickness. The latter is the technically more difficult measurement.
b) “One”: substitute word
| His apparatus was essentially the same as the one he had used to demonstrate the electrostatic deflection of cathode rays. Его прибор был в основном таким же, как и тот прибор, который он ранее использовал, чтобы продемонстрировать электростатическое отклонение катодных лучей. |
1. The setup such as the one in Figure 10 yields a plot of the variation of displacement with time.
2. Photons have a mass of zero when at rest and therefore do not act as a source of gravitational field, nor do they respond to one in the ordinary fashion.
3. The cell above is a simple example of a chemical cell; i.e. one in which the e.m.f. is produced by a chemical difference.
4. Our current theory of star formation is not a bad one, but its gaps leave us unable to explain many of the most important aspects of today’s universe.
5. In earlier times the universe was quite different than the star-filled one we see now.
c) “One”: numeral
| Electron spin coherence is only one kind of coherence that can be established with ultrafast laser pulses. Когерентность спина электрона – это только один вид когерентности, который может быть получен с помощью сверхбыстрых лазерных импульсов. |
1. This is an example of an iterative technique, where the results of one calculation are fed into the next one and so on by following a simple rule.
2. One of the main experimental techniques used for investigating nanostructure is scanning probe microscopy.
That / these/ those
a) “that/ these/ those”: substitute word
| In fact, the orbits of the planets predicted by the general relativity are almost exactly the same as those predicted by the Newtonian theory of gravity. В действительности орбиты планет, предсказанные общей теорией относительности, почти такие же, как орбиты, предсказанные теорией гравитации Ньютона. |
1. Over the past 15 years we have seen optics on the threshold of a new scientific adventure similar to that experienced in the 1960s.
2. In some universes electrons have the weight of golf balls and the force of gravity is stronger than that of magnetism.
3. Currently the density of dark energy is higher than that of matter, but in the distant past the density of matter should have been greater, so the expansion should have been slowing down then
4. The measured positions of vortices are extremely close to those determined theoretically for the modeled beams.
5. Evidently the exchanged photon (referred to as a virtual photon) has rather special properties, different from those of the photons that make up sunlight or radiowaves.
6. X-ray energy absorbed by the accretion disk is reemitted at other wavelengths, including those in the visible part of the spectrum.
7. In gases and most liquids, the energy is transmitted mainly by collisions between atoms and molecules with those possessing lower kinetic energy.
b) “that”: conjunction
| The rate of progress is so rapid that what one learns at school or university is always a bit out of date. Темпы развития настолько высоки, что то, что изучается в школе или университете, всегда является слегка устаревшим. |
1. Almost 75 years ago astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered the expansion of the universe by observing that other galaxies are moving away from ours.
2. These stellar explosions are so bright that ground telescopes can see them halfway across the visible universe, and the Hubble Space Telescope can view them from even farther away.
3. It seems that the Earth has been fortunate enough to hold on its initial reserves of water, while nearby planets have not.
4. Given the evidence that water occurs throughout the Universe, we might expect that the chances of finding life out there are good.
5. Although Franklin demonstrated that lightning is an electrical phenomenon, scientists to this day are struggling to understand how thunderstorms generate their charge and how lightning occurs.
c) “that”: relative pronoun
| All the cosmic phenomena that we observe today are the result of the initial explosion which happened between 12 and 15 billion years ago. Все космические явления, которые мы наблюдаем сегодня, являются результатом первого взрыва, который произошел 12-15 миллиардов лет назад. |
1. The search also turned up a large number of X-ray sources that showed no sign of a binary companion and from which no X-ray pulsations were observed.
2. To take advantage of this simple fact requires astronomical objects that have a known intrinsic luminosity – the amount of radiation per second produced by the object – and that can be seen across the universe.
3. In fact, the term ‘big bang’ was coined in 1949 by Cambridge astrophysicist Fred Hoyle, who believed in a universe that expanded forever, and meant the term as a derisive description.
III. Passive Voice
| A fundamentally different technique for making satellite observations has been introduced. Был введен принципиально отличный метод проведения наблюдений с помощью спутников. A series of chemical elements is sometimes referred to as an activity series. Ряд химических элементов иногда называют рядом активности. |
1. Superconductivity was understood in 1957 when John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and Robert Schrieffer put forward a theory usually referred to as BCS theory.
2. The mechanism for high-temperature superconductivity has not yet been established.
3. One can fairly say that most of the great physicists of the past century have been rewarded with a Nobel prize.
4. Greatly expanded since 2004, the buoy system worked superbly, and the deepwater signals have been incorporated into studies of the rupture process.
5. The rupture of the 2011 earthquake involved many of those parts failing in a cascade that had not been anticipated in any of the seismic hazard models for the region.
6. The various stages in this process are referred to as the ranks of the coal
7. Open quantum systems, whose properties are affected by the environment of decay, scattering, and reaction channels, are also the subjects of interdisciplinary studies.
8. The study of complexity is greatly aided by computers in systems that cannot be described analytically.
9. The nuclear force between protons and neutrons was given the name ‘strong interaction’ and until the 1960s it was thought to be an exchange force as proposed by Yukawa.
10. The seismic waves propagated through Earth and were captured by some 1300 broadband global seismometers, many of which transmitted the data in near-real time to collection centers.
11. But ongoing research is evaluating whether any nonelastic deformations, such as submarine landslides, were also involved.
12. It appears that the fundamental numbers, and even the form, of the apparent laws of nature are not demanded by logic or physical principle.
13. Seasonal weather patterns on earth are determined mainly by the tilt of the earth’s axis of rotation relative to the plane of its orbit around the sun.
14. It is believed that the laws of physics are unchanged under a uniform velocity in a straight line. This is called the principle of relativity.
15. Neutron stars were first suggested as theoretical possibilities in the 1930s by Fritz Zwicky and Walter Waade, but were taken seriously only after the 1967 discovery of pulsars, which are spinning neutron stars.