a) Gerund: subject
| Explaining the small but non-zero value of the cosmological constant is one of the greatest challengesfacing theoretical physics of the present time. Объяснение малого, но не нулевого, значения космологической константы является самой большой проблемой, стоящей перед теоретической физикой нашего времени. |
1. Solving the mystery of cosmic acceleration will reveal the density of our universe
2. Controlling the production of debris is crucial to the sustainable use of space.
3. Applying this logic revealed that it is not just experiments that evolve in this way, but experimenters, too.
4. It is no use changing each of these variables at random and hoping that some pattern will be obvious from the results.
5. In physics, doing work involves moving a force through a distance.
6. Increasing the amplitude of the sound increases the intensity received by our ears, and hence the loudness that we hear
7. Uniting quantum mechanics and gravity means somehow quantizing the structure of space and time itself.
8. Repeating the experiment in these circumstances did not improve the accuracy of the measurements.
b) Gerund: object
| So according to Le Chatelier's principle, an increase in pressure results in melting the ice and decreases the sample volume. Так, согласно принципу Ле Шателье, увеличение давления приводит к плавлению льда и увеличивает объем образца. |
1. Superconducting cavities conduct electric current with extremely small loss in energy so that all the electrical energy goes into accelerating the beam, rather than into heating up the accelerating structures themselves.
2. Gravity prevents our solar system from flying apart and binds together enormous clusters of galaxies.
3. Further progress toward understanding the surface of ice may be dependent on performing several kinds of measurements on the same surface under comparable conditions.
4. Several experiments have been aimed at probing electron spin coherence in semiconductors using ultrafast lasers.
5. Physicists have been impressively successful in reducing almost everything to simple fundamental physical laws.
6. Kinetic theory, neglecting scattering by imperfections and lattice vibrations, leads to an estimate of the mean free path.
7. There is currently no effective way to remove large amounts of debris from orbit, so controlling the production of debris is essential for preserving the long-term use of space.
8. Because metal skis showed higher friction than wooden skis, the researchers concluded that frictional heating was responsible for melting the ice.
c) Gerund: adverbial modifier
| By carefully observing distant supernovae – stellar explosions that for a brief time shine as brightly as 10 billion suns – astronomers found that they were fainter than expected. Проводя тщательные наблюдения далеких сверхновых – взрывов звезд, которые в течение короткого времени светят также ярко, как 10 млрд солнц – астрономы обнаружили, что они более тусклые, чем ожидалось. |
1. We can use this principle to analyse complex situations without having to predict every physical change that may take place.
2. The distance between the two bodies in the system could be estimated rather closely even without knowing the specific masses of the two stars.
3. Ion beams are widely used in nondestructive elemental analysis, by simple scattering of ion-beam particles from Mev accelerators, by inducing nuclear reactions, or by using particle-induced x-ray and gamma-ray analysis.
4. One measures the present and past expansion rates of the cosmos by plotting the distances of cosmologically remote objects against their redshifts.
5. By gauging the redshift and apparent brightness of a large number of supernovae located at a variety of distances, researchers can create a record of the universe’s expansion.
6. By improving the precision of cosmic-ray measurements one can look not only for the abundances of atomic nuclei but also for the abundances of isotopes: species of atomic nuclei.
7. Just as pictures are often more informative than words, graphs are often more useful than algebraic formulas in understanding what is happening in a physical system.
d) Gerund: attribute
| The overall framework for understanding the evolution of the Universe is the Big-Bang model. Общими рамками для понимания эволюции вселенной является модель Большого взрыва. |
1. The historical goal of understanding electron motion within atoms was abandoned in favor of a systematic method for organizing observable spectral lines.
2. The nature of inflation potential and the mechanism for converting the inflation energy into radiation are completely unknown.
3. The idea of describing interactions of elementary particles as an exchange of intermediate bosons has been applied very successfully in quantum electrodynamics, where the photon acts as exchange particle.
4. The possibility of manipulating individual atoms has many potential applications in chemistry, electronics, engineering, materials science, molecular biology, medicine, and computer technology.
e) Gerundial construction
| In addition to masses being measured confidently for the first time, there have been many direct observations of the gas flow close to the event horizon. В дополнении к тому, что впервые были точно измерены массы, были проведены непосредственные измерения потока газа вблизи горизонта событий. |
1. In addition to opening new avenues for the study of fundamental quantum interactions in solids, wave function engineering can also provide us with new opportunities for technology development.
2. In addition to being of fundamental interest, these experiments illustrate topological light shaping that might be used as a topological waveguide for quantum mechanical matter waves, such as Bose-Einstein condensates.
3. Most physicists still instinctively disliked the idea of time having a beginning or end.
VII. Modal verbs
a) Primary function: obligation, duty, ability, possibility
| The term “natural unit of electricity” means the amount of electricity that must pass through a solution to liberate one atom of hydrogen. Термин «естественная единица электричества» означает количество электричества, которое должно пройти через раствор, чтобы выделить один атом водорода. The farther the star, the smaller the eclipse, and if the size of the eclipse can be measured, the distance of the star can be determined. Чем дальше звезда, тем меньше затмение, и если величину затмения можно измерить, то можно определить расстояние до звезды. According to the position of the plate, it may either divert from or direct the current to the tube. В соответствии с положением пластина может либо отклонить ток от трубки, либо направить его в трубку. This experiment should only be demonstrated using a fume cupboard to remove the mercury vapour. Этот эксперимент следует демонстрировать только при наличии вытяжного шкафа для удаления паров ртути. |
1. The data you collect must be relevant to the problem and sufficient for you to establish reliable conclusions.
2. We seem to be at a critical point in the history of science, in which we must alter our conception of goals and of what makes a physical theory acceptable.
3. In addition to opening new avenues for the study of fundamental quantum interactions in solids, wave function engineering can also provide us with new opportunities for technology development.
4. It may therefore seem that the theory can never be tested, but such is not the case.
5. In both Newtonian and general relativity theory the gravitational constant G is an arbitrary parameter, so these theories cannot explain the weakness of gravity, and we must look deeper.
6. The ultimate theory must be consistent and must predict finite results for quantities that we can measure.
7. Tsunamis travel slowly in shallow coastal water, and many people were able to reach high ground in time to escape the flooding.
8. Many of the other radionuclides may be used in similar ways to determine the times of other events in the Earth formation.
9. As parameters vary, the vortex lines evolve in a complicated way, and may reconnect, and loops may appear or disappear.
10. The union of relativity and quantum mechanics therefore led to speculation as early as 1932 that there might also be antiprotons and antineutrons.
11. Pauli proposed the existence of a neutral particle that might be able to carry off the missing energy and momentum m in beta decay and escape undetected.
12. You should fully reference any value that you quote from the literature.
13. Another prediction of general relativity is that time should appear to run slower near a massive body like the earth.
14. The realization that ordered solids needn’t be translationally periodic sent experts scrambling to rewrite the textbooks on condensed matter.
b) Secondary function: degree of certainty/ uncertainty
| Alan Guth, a scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, suggested that the early universe might have gone through a period of very rapid expansion. Алан Гут, ученый из Массачусетского технологического института, выдвинул предположение о том, что ранняя вселенная могла, вероятно, проходить через период очень быстрого расширения. |
1. These objects have such a high density that competitive accretion must be taking place, at least on a small scale.
2. Surely, one would have thought, gravity must be slowing the cosmic expansion down.
3. We know that black holes must be quite common, and we can now study them in increasing detail.
4. Ample evidence exists that galaxies contain an enormous amount of unseen material, detected only by gravitational influence, and there must be so much dark matter that its gravity completely dominated galaxy formation.
5. It was possible, then, that what seemed to be a quasicrystal was really a locally oriented glass or the diffraction patterns could have been created by a regular crystal with a large unit cell.
6. The voltage is so high—above the diode’s breakdown voltage—that it could generate a current in the reverse direction all by itself, but for the lack of free charge carriers.
7. In order to predict how the universe should have started off, one needs laws that hold at the beginning of time.
8. The number of black holes, however, is almost certainly very much higher; in the long history of the universe, many stars must have burned all their nuclear fuel and have had to collapse.
9. Currently the density of dark energy is higher than that of matter, but in the distant past the density of matter should have been greater, so the expansion should have been slowing down then.
10. If two experimenters find different values of g for the same location on the surface of the Earth then, providing they have not made any mistakes, new physics must have been discovered.
11. Although the resulting solid would technically be a glass, not a crystal, it might have enough orientational order to produce diffraction spots resembling Bragg peaks.